Suchergebnisse

Combating the expansion of criminal organizations has long been on the agenda of the European Union, but to date the steps towards the adoption of a common strategy have been timid. And this despite the European Union's request for alignment of the laws and regulations of the Member States. Intensive work commencing in 2012 eventually produced Directive 2014/42EU on the freezing and confiscation of instrumentalities and proceeds of crime in the European Union, modelled on Law 109/1996 enacted by Italy. Another step in this direction was the approval in 2016 by the European Parliament of the report on the fight against corruption, which renews the Commission's request for criminal association to be made punishable and for the adoption of specific legislation on "a particular type of criminal organization whose members take advantage of the power of intimidation of the associative bond and of the condition of subjection and silence" (Article 416-bis of the Italian penal code), allowing "confiscation in the absence of definitive conviction." Harmonized legislation has yet to be adopted, however; in particular, there is no reference model for combating criminal organizations in economic terms or for the construction of barriers in civil society. The Italian experience in the fight against mafia-style criminal organizations, based on the social reutilization of confiscated assets and the construction of an economy alternative to organized crime, could be a useful reference model for EU member countries in constructing a homogeneous European system for combating criminal gangs.

En Italie, on recense actuellement de grandes disparités hommes-femmes en matière professionnelle, en particulier pour ce qui est des salaires et des taux d'activité. Le présent article examine la situation en considérant les revenus sur le cycle de vie, en récapitulant d'une part, toutes les disparités de carrière et en examinant d'autre part, si la redistribution établie par le système de retraite peut atténuer les différences. En exploitant une base de données originale portant sur l'ensemble des carrières professionnelles, nous expliquons comment l'écart de salaire se creuse constamment avec l'âge et comment les femmes tendent à cumuler un nombre moindre d'années d'activité ouvrant droit à la retraite. Ces deux facteurs ont un effet sur le calcul des pensions, si bien qu'au moment du départ en retraite, les écarts entre les sexes sont encore plus marqués. Nous utilisons un modèle de microsimulation pour montrer que le système de retraite compense partiellement la situation du marché du travail, en atténuant les différences de revenus sur le cycle de vie. Cependant, en raison de la transition actuelle vers un système actuariellement neutre, cet effet disparaîtra, ce qui soulève des interrogations sur l'évolution future des disparités de revenus entre hommes et femmes.

ABSTRACT**:  This paper investigates the nonprofit wage gap suggesting a theoretical framework where, like in

Akerlof (1984)

, effort correlates not only with wages, but also with non‐monetary compensations. These take the form of relational goods by‐produced in the delivery of particular services. By paying higher non‐pecuniary compensations, the nonprofit sector attracts intrinsically similarly skilled, but more motivated workers, able to provide in fact a similar (or potentially higher) level of effort than their counterparts in the forprofit sector. On an empirical ground, the paper provides a number of econometric tests that confirm the main predictions of the model in Italy's case. It adds to the available empirical literature by introducing in the analysis direct measures of non‐pecuniary compensations and job satisfaction.