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IN THIS PAPER THE AUTHORS USE A SIMPLE DOWNSIAN SPATIAL MODEL TO ANALYZE THE PROPERTIES OF CAMPAIGN CONTRIBUTIONS. THEY FIRST CONSIDER CAMPAIGN CONTRIBUTIONS THAT ARE INTENDED TO INFORM VOTERS OF CANDIDATE POSITIONS. THEY SHOW THAT IT IS DIFFICULT TO CONSTRUCT ARGUMENTS IN A DOWNSIAN SPATIAL MODEL FOR WHY SOME VOTERS WOULD CHOOSE TO CONTRIBUTE TO A CANDIDATE AND THE CANDIDATE WOULD WANT TO SPEND THE MONEY CONTRIBUTED TO INFORM VOTERS OF HIS POSITION. THEY THEN DEFINE PERSUASIVE CAMPAIGN EXPENDITURES AS THOSE THAT ARE INTENDED TO CONVINCE AN INDIVIDUAL TO VOTE FOR A CANDIDATE REGARDLESS OF THE CANDIDATE'S POSITION ON ISSUES. IN THE PRESENCE OF PERSUASIVE CAMPAIGN EXPENDITURES SOME VOTERS HAVE AN INCENTIVE TO CONTRIBUTE TO ONE OR BOTH CANDIDATES, AND THE CANDIDATES HAVE AN INCENTIVE TO SPEND THE MONEY. THEY SHOW WHY THE NATURE OF PERSUASIVE CAMPAIGN EXPENDITURES MAY EXPLAIN BOTH THEIR GROWTH IN RECENT YEARS AND THE INCREASING ADVANTAGE OF INCUMBENCY.

Background: With expansion of more advanced clinical roles for pharmacists we need to be mindful that the extent to which clinical pharmacy services (CPS) are implemented varies from one country to another. To date no comprehensive assessment of number and types of CPS provided by either community or hospital pharmacies in Austria exists. Objective: To analyse and describe the number and types of CPS provided in both community and hospital pharmacies, as well as the level of clinical pharmacy education of pharmacists across Austria. Setting: Austrian community and hospital pharmacies. Method: An electronic questionnaire to determine number and types of CPS provided was issued to all chief pharmacists at all community (n=1365) and hospital pharmacies (n=40) across Austria. Besides current and future CPS provision, education and training provision were determined. Main outcome measure: Extent of and attitude towards CPS in Austria. Results: Response rates to the surveys were 19.1% (n=261/1365) in community and 92.5% (n=37/40) in hospital pharmacies. 59.0% and 89.2% of community and hospital pharmacies, respectively, indicated that CPS provision has increased substantially in the past 10 years. 51.0% of community pharmacies reported to provide a medication review service, while 97.3% of hospitals provide a range of CPS. Only 18.0% of community pharmacies offer services other than medication review services at dispensing. Binary regressions show that provision of already established medication management is a predictor for the willingness of community pharmacists to extend the range of CPS (p [less than] 0.01), while completed training in the area of clinical pharmacy is not (p [greater than] 0.05). More hospital than community pharmacists have postgraduate education in clinical pharmacy (17.4% vs 6.5%). A desire to complete postgraduate education was shown by 28.3% of community and 14.7% of hospital pharmacists. Lack of time, inadequate remuneration, lack of resources and poor relationship between pharmacists and physicians were highlighted as barriers. Conclusion: Both community and hospital pharmacists show strong willingness to expand their CPS provision and will need continued support, such as improved legislative structures, more supportive resources and practice focused training opportunities, to further these services.

For the first time, multiwavelength polarization Raman lidar observations of optical and microphysical particle properties over the Amazon Basin are presented. the fully automated advanced Raman lidar was deployed 60 km north of Manaus, Brazil (2.5 degrees S, 60 degrees W) in the Amazon rain forest from January to November 2008. the measurements thus cover both the wet season (Dec-June) and the dry or burning season (July-Nov). Two cases studies of young and aged smoke plumes are discussed in terms of spectrally resolved optical properties (355, 532, and 1064 nm) and further lidar products such as particle effective radius and single-scattering albedo. These measurement examples confirm that biomass burning aerosols show a broad spectrum of optical, microphysical, and chemical properties. the statistical analysis of the entire measurement period revealed strong differences between the pristine wet and the polluted dry season. African smoke and dust advection frequently interrupt the pristine phases during the wet season. Compared to pristine wet season conditions, the particle scattering coefficients in the lowermost 2 km of the atmosphere were found to be enhanced, on average, by a factor of 4 during periods of African aerosol intrusion and by a factor of 6 during the dry (burning) season. Under pristine conditions, the particle extinction coefficients and optical depth for 532 nm wavelength were frequently as low as 10-30 Mm(-1) and <0.05, respectively. During the dry season, biomass burning smoke plumes reached to 3-5 km height and caused a mean optical depth at 532 nm of 0.26. On average during that season, particle extinction coefficients (532 nm) were of the order of 100 Mm(-1) in the main pollution layer (up to 2 km height). Angstrom exponents were mainly between 1.0 and 1.5, and the majority of the observed lidar ratios were between 50-80 sr. ; National Institute for Amazonia Research (INPA) ; AMAZE-08 team ; European Union (FP7) ; Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) ; Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) ; EU FP6 project EUCAARI ; Leibniz Inst Tropospher Res, DE-04318 Leipzig, Germany ; NASA, Langley Res Ctr, Sci Syst & Applicat Inc, Hampton, VA 23665 USA ; Univ São Paulo, Inst Phys, São Paulo, Brazil ; Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Dept Earth & Nat Sci, Diadema, Brazil ; Univ State Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil ; Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Dept Earth & Nat Sci, Diadema, Brazil ; European Union (FP7): 036833-2 ; FAPESP: 2008/58100-2 ; EU FP6 project EUCAARI: 34684 ; Web of Science

Stream networks have recently been discovered to be major but poorly constrained natural greenhouse gas (GHG) sources. A fundamental problem is that several measurement approaches have been used without cross-comparisons. Flux chambers represent a potentially powerful methodological approach if robust and reliable ways to use chambers on running water can be defined. Here we compare the use of anchored and freely drifting chambers on various streams with different flow velocities. The study clearly shows that (1) anchored chambers enhance turbulence under the chambers and thus elevate fluxes, (2) drifting chambers have a very small impact on the water turbulence under the chamber and thus generate more reliable fluxes, (3) the bias of the anchored chambers greatly depends on chamber design and sampling conditions, and (4) there is a promising method to reduce the bias from anchored chambers by using a flexible plastic foil collar to seal the chambers to the water surface, rather than having rigid chamber walls penetrating into the water. Altogether, these results provide novel guidance on how to apply flux chambers in running water, which will have important consequences for measurements to constrain the global GHG balances. ; Funding Agencies|German Research Foundation [LO 1150/9-1]; Leibniz Association within the Joint Initiative for Research and Innovation (BMBF); Erasmus Mundus program of the European Union; Swiss National Science Foundation [PA00P2_142041]; IGB cross-cutting research domain "Aquatic Boundaries and Linkages"; German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) (Sustainable water management Program (NAWAM)) [A/12/91768]