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Intro -- Title page -- Table of Contents -- Copyright -- Contributors -- Chapter 1: Traffic-related air pollution: Emissions, human exposures, and health: An introduction -- Abstract -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction -- Chapter 2: Air pollution, air quality, vehicle emissions, and environmental regulations -- Abstract -- Sources of air pollution -- Pollutant concentration and units -- History of air pollution control regulations in the United States -- Pollutant emission trends in the United States -- Transportation emissions in the United States -- Transportation emissions and near-road communities -- Conclusion -- Chapter 3: Traffic monitoring and modeling for energy, air quality, and health -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Traffic monitoring data -- Modeling advances -- Gaps and opportunities -- Conclusions -- Chapter 4: Vehicle emissions measurement and modeling -- Abstract -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction -- Vehicle emissions monitoring -- Vehicle emissions modeling -- Current and future challenges -- Summary and conclusions -- Chapter 5: Air pollution monitoring and modeling -- Abstract -- Monitoring -- Modeling -- Model to monitor comparisons -- Summary and conclusion -- Chapter 6: Traffic-related air pollution and exposure assessment -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Exposure pathways -- Vehicle emissions -- Traffic-related air pollution -- Exposure assessment methods -- Conclusions -- Chapter 7: Air pollution epidemiology -- Abstract -- Introduction -- Short history of air pollution epidemiology -- Epidemiological designs for studying short-term health effects of air pollution -- Epidemiological designs for studying long-term health effects of air pollution -- Experimental designs in air pollution epidemiology -- Summary -- Chapter 8: Systematic reviews and metaanalyses of air pollution epidemiological studies -- Abstract -- Introduction.

BACKGROUND: Many pregnancy and birth cohort studies investigate the health effects of early-life environmental contaminant exposure. An overview of existing studies and their data is needed to improve collaboration, harmonization, and future project planning. OBJECTIVES: Our goal was to create a comprehensive overview of European birth cohorts with environmental exposure data. METHODS: Birth cohort studies were included if they a) collected data on at least one environmental exposure, b) started enrollment during pregnancy or at birth, c) included at least one follow-up point after birth, d) included at least 200 mother-child pairs, and e) were based in a European country. A questionnaire collected information on basic protocol details and exposure and health outcome assessments, including specific contaminants, methods and samples, timing, and number of subjects. A full inventory can be searched on www.birthcohortsenrieco.net. RESULTS: Questionnaires were completed by 37 cohort studies of > 350,000 mother-child pairs in 19 European countries. Only three cohorts did not participate. All cohorts collected biological specimens of children or parents. Many cohorts collected information on passive smoking (n = 36), maternal occupation (n = 33), outdoor air pollution (n = 27), and allergens/biological organisms (n = 27). Fewer cohorts (n = 12-19) collected information on water contamination, ionizing or nonionizing radiation exposures, noise, metals, persistent organic pollutants, or other pollutants. All cohorts have information on birth outcomes; nearly all on asthma, allergies, childhood growth and obesity; and 26 collected information on child neurodevelopment. CONCLUSION: Combining forces in this field will yield more efficient and conclusive studies and ultimately improve causal inference. This impressive resource of existing birth cohort data could form the basis for longer-term and worldwide coordination of research on environment and child health. ; This work was supported by Environmental Health Risks in European Birth Cohorts (ENRIECO), a project conducted within the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (Theme 6, Environment, including climate change), grant agreement 226285

Evidence for a role of long-term particulate matter exposure on acute respiratory infections is growing. However, which components of particulate matter may be causative remains largely unknown. We assessed associations between eight particulate matter elements and early-life pneumonia in seven birth cohort studies (Ntotal = 15,980): BAMSE (Sweden), GASPII (Italy), GINIplus and LISAplus (Germany), INMA (Spain), MAAS (United Kingdom) and PIAMA (The Netherlands). Annual average exposure to copper, iron, potassium, nickel, sulfur, silicon, vanadium and zinc, each respectively derived from particles with aerodynamic diameters ≤ 10 μm (PM10) and 2.5 μm (PM2.5), were estimated using standardized land use regression models and assigned to birth addresses. Cohort-specific associations between these exposures and parental reports of physician-diagnosed pneumonia between birth and two years were assessed using logistic regression models adjusted for host and environmental covariates and total PM10 or PM2.5 mass. Combined estimates were calculated using random-effects meta-analysis. There was substantial within and between-cohort variability in element concentrations. In the adjusted meta-analysis, pneumonia was weakly associated with zinc derived from PM10 (OR: 1.47 (95% CI: 0.99, 2.18) per 20 ng/m3 increase). No other associations with the other elements were consistently observed. The independent effect of particulate matter mass remained after adjustment for element concentrations. In conclusion, associations between particulate matter mass exposure and pneumonia were not explained by the elements we investigated. Zinc from PM10 was the only element which appeared independently associated with a higher risk of early-life pneumonia. As zinc is primarily attributable to non-tailpipe traffic emissions, these results may suggest a potential adverse effect of non-tailpipe emissions on health. ; This research received funding from the European Community's Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007-2011): ESCAPE (grant agreement number: 211250) and TRANSPHORM (ENV.2009.1.2.2.1). The Swedish Research Council FORMAS, the Stockholm County Council, the Swedish Foundation for Health Care Sciences and Allergy Research, and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency supported BAMSE. The Italian Ministry of Health (ex art.12 D.Lgs 502/92, 2001) supported GASPII. The GINIplus study was supported for the first three years by grants of the Federal Ministry for Education, Science, Research and Technology (grant no. 01 EE 9401-4). The LISAplus study was supported by grants 01 EG 9732 and 01 EG 9705/2 from the Federal Ministry for Education, Science, Research and Technology, by the Federal Ministry for Environment (IUF, FKZ 20462296) and by the Helmholtz Zentrum München, Munich Center of Health. The Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development, The Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, The Netherlands Asthma Fund, The Netherlands Ministry of Spatial Planning, Housing, and the Environment and The Netherlands Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport supported PIAMA. An Asthma UK Grant 04/014, the Moulton Charitable Trust, the James Trust and Microsoft Research supported MAAS. Grants from the Spanish Ministry of Health-Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Red INMA G03/176, CB06/02/0041, FISPI041436, FIS-PI081151, FIS-PI042018, FIS-PI09/02311, FIS-PI06/0867, FIS-PS09/00090, FIS-FEDER 03/1615, 04/1509, 04/1112, 04/1931, 05/1079, 05/1052, 06/1213, 07/0314, and 09/02647), Generalitat de Catalunya-CIRIT 1999SGR 00241, Conselleria de Sanitat Generalitat Valenciana, Universidad de Oviedo, Obra social Cajastur, Department of Health of the Basque Government (2005111093 and 2009111069), Provincial Government of Gipuzkoa (DFG06/004 and DFG08/001) and Fundación Roger Torné supported INMA.

BACKGROUND: Women of reproductive age can be exposed to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) at work, and exposure to EDCs in pregnancy may affect fetal growth. OBJECTIVES: We assessed whether maternal occupational exposure to EDCs during pregnancy as classified by application of a job exposure matrix was associated with birth weight, term low birth weight (LBW), length of gestation, and preterm delivery. METHODS: Using individual participant data from 133,957 mother-child pairs in 13 European cohorts spanning births from 1994 through 2011, we linked maternal job titles with exposure to 10 EDC groups as assessed through a job exposure matrix. For each group, we combined the two levels of exposure categories (possible and probable) and compared birth outcomes with the unexposed group (exposure unlikely). We performed meta-analyses of cohort-specific estimates. RESULTS: Eleven percent of pregnant women were classified as exposed to EDCs at work during pregnancy, based on job title. Classification of exposure to one or more EDC group was associated with an increased risk of term LBW [odds ratio (OR) = 1.25; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.49], as were most specific EDC groups; this association was consistent across cohorts. Further, the risk increased with increasing number of EDC groups (OR = 2.11; 95% CI: 1.10, 4.06 for exposure to four or more EDC groups). There were few associations (p < 0.05) with the other outcomes; women holding job titles classified as exposed to bisphenol A or brominated flame retardants were at higher risk for longer length of gestation. CONCLUSION: Results from our large population-based birth cohort design indicate that employment during pregnancy in occupations classified as possibly or probably exposed to EDCs was associated with an increased risk of term LBW. ; This work was supported by the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (grants FP7/2007-2013, 226285, 241604) as part of the Environmental Health Risks in European Birth Cohorts project (http://www.enrieco.org) and the Developing a Child Cohort Research Strategy for Europe project (http://www.chicosproject.eu); and by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (grant CD12/00563). Funding per cohort: ABCD: This work was supported by the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (grant 2100.0076). BAMSE: This work was supported by the Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation; Stockholm County Council; Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare; and the European Commission's Seventh Framework 29 Program: the Mechanisms of the Development of Allergy (grant 261357). DNBC: This work was supported by the Danish Epidemiology of Science Centre; Pharmacy Foundation; Egmont Foundation; March of Dimes Birth Defect Foundation; Agustinus Foundation; and the Health Foundation. Generation R: This work was supported by the Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam; Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development; European Commission Seventh Framework Programme; and the Contaminant Mixtures and Human Reproductive Health Project (grant 212502); V.J. received an additional grant from the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (grant VIDI 016.136.361) and Consolidator Grant from the European Research Council (grant ERC-2014-CoG-648916). Generation XXI: This work was supported by the Programa Operacional de Saúde – Saúde XXI; Quadro Comunitário de Apoio III; Administração Regional de Saúde Norte (Regional Department of Ministry of Health); Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology; Fundo Europeu de Desenvolvimento Regional, and the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. INMA_Granada: This work was supported by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (grants G03/176, CB06/02/0041); Spanish Ministry of Health (grant FIS-07/0252); European Union Commission (grants QLK4-1999-01422, QLK4-2002-00603, FP7-ENV-212502); and the Consejería de Salud de la Junta de Andalucía (grant 183/07; 0675-2010). INMA_New: This work was supported by the European Union (grants FP7-ENV-2011, 282957, HEALTH.2010.2.4.5-1); Instituto de Salud Carlos III (grants G03/176, CB06/02/0041, FIS-FEDER 03/1615, 04/1509, 04/1112, 04/1931, 05/1079, 05/1052, 06/1213, 07/0314, 09/02647, 11/01007, 11/02591, CP11/00178, FIS-PI06/0867, FIS-PS09/00090); Conselleria de Sanitat Generalitat Valenciana; Spanish Ministry of Health (grants FIS-PI041436, FIS- PI081151, FIS-PI042018, FIS-PI09/02311); Generalitat de Catalunya (grants CIRIT1999SGR, 00241); Obre Social Cajastur; Universidad de Oviedo; Department of Health of the Basque Government (grants 2005111093, 2009111069); and the Provincial Government of Gipuzkoa (grants DFG06/004, DFG08/001). KANC: This work was supported by the European Commission (grant FP6-036224). MoBa: This work was supported by the Norwegian Ministry of Health; National Institutes of Health; National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (grant N01-ES–85433); National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (grant 1 UO1 NS 047537); Norwegian Research Council; Functional Genomics (grant 151918/S10); and Environmental Exposures and Health Outcomes (grant 213148). NINFEA: This work was supported by the Compagnia San Paolo Foundation, and by the Piedmont Region. Pélagie: This work was supported by the National Institute of Health and Medical Research; the French Ministry of Health; the French Ministry of Labor; French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety; French National Research Agency; and the French Institute for Public Health Surveillance. REPRO_PL: This work was supported by the National Centre for Research and Development, Poland (grants PBZ-MEiN-/8/2/2006, K140/P01/2007/1.3.1.1); the Norwegian Financial Mechanism within the PolishNorwegian Research Fund (grant PNRF-218-AI-1/07); and European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (grant FP7/2007-2013, 603946). Rhea: This work was supported by the European Union Integrated Project NewGeneris, 6th Framework Programme, (grant FOOD-CT-2005-016320); and the Health Impacts of Long-term Exposure to Disinfection By-products in Drinking Water project (grant Food-CT-2006-036224).

This book presents an evidence-based approach to landscape planning and design for urban blue spaces that maximises the benefits to human health and well-being while minimising the risks. Based on applied research and evidence from primary and secondary data sources stemming from the EU-funded BlueHealth project, the book presents nature-based solutions to promote sustainable and resilient cities. Numerous cities around the world are located alongside bodies of water in the form of coastlines, lakes, rivers and canals, but the relationship between city inhabitants and these water sources has often been ambivalent. In many cities, water has been polluted, engineered or ignored completely. But, due to an increasing awareness of the strong connections between city, people, nature and water and health, this paradigm is shifting. The international editorial team, consisting of researchers and professionals across several disciplines, leads the reader through theoretical aspects, evidence, illustrated case studies, risk assessment and a series of validated tools to aid planning and design before finishing with overarching planning and design principles for a range of blue-space types. Over 200 full-colour illustrations accompany the case-study examples from geographic locations all over the world, including Portugal, the United Kingdom, China, Canada, the US, South Korea, Singapore, Norway and Estonia. With green and blue infrastructure now at the forefront of current policies and trends to promote healthy, sustainable cities, Urban Blue Spaces is a must-have for professionals and students in landscape planning, urban design and environmental design. Open Access for the book was funded by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 666773

This book presents an evidence-based approach to landscape planning and design for urban blue spaces that maximises the benefits to human health and well-being while minimising the risks. Based on applied research and evidence from primary and secondary data sources stemming from the EU-funded BlueHealth project, the book presents nature-based solutions to promote sustainable and resilient cities. Numerous cities around the world are located alongside bodies of water in the form of coastlines, lakes, rivers and canals, but the relationship between city inhabitants and these water sources has often been ambivalent. In many cities, water has been polluted, engineered or ignored completely. But, due to an increasing awareness of the strong connections between city, people, nature and water and health, this paradigm is shifting. The international editorial team, consisting of researchers and professionals across several disciplines, leads the reader through theoretical aspects, evidence, illustrated case studies, risk assessment and a series of validated tools to aid planning and design before finishing with overarching planning and design principles for a range of blue-space types. Over 200 full-colour illustrations accompany the case-study examples from geographic locations all over the world, including Portugal, the United Kingdom, China, Canada, the US, South Korea, Singapore, Norway and Estonia. With green and blue infrastructure now at the forefront of current policies and trends to promote healthy, sustainable cities, Urban Blue Spaces is a must-have for professionals and students in landscape planning, urban design and environmental design.

The aim of this study is to evaluate the relationship between the density of green spaces at different buffer sizes (300, 500, 1000 and 1500 m) and cardiovascular risk factors (obesity, hypertension, high cholesterol, and diabetes) as well as to study if the relationship is different for males and females. We conducted cross-sectional analyses using the baseline measures of the Heart Healthy Hoods study (N = 1625). We obtained data on the outcomes from clinical diagnoses, as well as anthropometric and blood sample measures. Exposure data on green spaces density at different buffer sizes were derived from the land cover distribution map of Madrid. Results showed an association between the density of green spaces within 300 and 500 m buffers with high cholesterol and diabetes, and an association between the density of green spaces within 1500 m buffer with hypertension. However, all of these associations were significant only in women. Study results, along with other evidence, may help policy-makers creating healthier environments that could reduce cardiovascular disease burden and reduce gender health inequities. Further research should investigate the specific mechanisms behind the differences by gender and buffer size of the relationship between green spaces and cardiovascular risk factors. ; This project was funded by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Subdirección General de Evaluación y Fomento de la Investigación, Government of Spain (PI18/00782) and by the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013/ERC Starting Grant Heart Healthy Hoods Agreement no. 623 336893). P.G. was supported by the 2018 Alfonso Martín Escudero Research Grant.

Background: Environmental factors determine children's health. Quantifying the health impacts related to environmental hazards for children is essential to prioritize interventions to improve health in Europe. Objective: This study aimed to assess the burden of childhood disease due to environmental risks across the European Union. Methods: We conducted an environmental burden of childhood disease assessment in the 28 countries of the EU (EU28) for seven environmental risk factors (particulate matter less than 10 micrometer of diameter (PM(10)) and less than 2.5 micrometer of diameter (PM(2.5)), ozone, secondhand smoke, dampness, lead, and formaldehyde). The primary outcome was disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), assessed from exposure data provided by the World Health Organization, Global Burden of Disease project, scientific literature, and epidemiological risk estimates. Results: The seven studied environmental risk factors for children in the EU28 were responsible for around 211,000 DALYs annually. Particulate matter (PM(10) and PM(2.5)) was the main environmental risk factor, producing 59% of total DALYs (125,000 DALYs), followed by secondhand smoke with 20% of all DALYs (42,500 DALYs), ozone 11% (24,000 DALYs), dampness 6% (13,000 DALYs), lead 3% (6200 DALYs), and formaldehyde 0.2% (423 DALYs). Conclusions: Environmental exposures included in this study were estimated to produce 211,000 DALYs each year in children in the EU28, representing 2.6% of all DALYs in children. Among the included environmental risk factors, air pollution (particulate matter and ozone) was estimated to produce the highest burden of disease in children in Europe, half of which was due to the effects of PM(10) on infant mortality. Effective policies to reduce environmental pollutants across Europe are needed.

BACKGROUND: A growing number of quantitative studies have investigated the potential benefits of outdoor blue spaces (lakes, rivers, sea, etc) and human health, but there is not yet a systematic review synthesizing this evidence. OBJECTIVES: To systematically review the current quantitative evidence on human health and well-being benefits of outdoor blue spaces. METHODS: Following PRISMA guidelines for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analysis, observational and experimental quantitative studies focusing on both residential and non-residential outdoor blue space exposure were searched using specific keywords. RESULTS: In total 35 studies were included in the current systematic review, most of them being classified as of "good quality" (N=22). The balance of evidence suggested a positive association between greater exposure to outdoor blue spaces and both benefits to mental health and well-being (N=12 studies) and levels of physical activity (N=13 studies). The evidence of an association between outdoor blue space exposure and general health (N=6 studies), obesity (N=8 studies) and cardiovascular (N=4 studies) and related outcomes was less consistent. CONCLUSIONS: Although encouraging, there remains relatively few studies and a large degree of heterogeneity in terms of study design, exposure metrics and outcome measures, making synthesis difficult. Further research is needed using longitudinal research and natural experiments, preferably across a broader range of countries, to better understand the causal associations between blue spaces, health and wellbeing. ; This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 666773