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Gozo is marketed as the "island where time stood still" and as a place of "calm and relaxation". Its main attraction lies in its rural character, typical of the Maltese Islands before the advent of mass tourism. Gozo is less urbanized than Malta, has more countryside not given over to agriculture, and, because of its geological and topographical structure, has more water resources and is consequently more verdant than Malta. To these must be added the slow pace of life, the peaceful atmosphere and the friendly people, a significant proportion of whom are still engaged in traditional trades and crafts. It is these which make Gozo an attractive destination for both foreign and local tourists. Gozo's main asset is thus its environment; it is also its main problem in terms of tourism. Almost by definition, a place of relaxation which exists in a temporal backwater must be remote, visited by few people, and must be insulated from the myriad elements which make modern living stressful. The problem lies in the fact that although the greater the number of tourists, the greater the income generated, the greater also is the degradation of that asset which attracted them in the first place - the environment. The disease afflicting the Gozitan environment is a familiar one: lack of appreciation of its importance and lack of understanding of how it functions; the symptoms are many. ; peer-reviewed

The Maltese archipelago, occupying an area of c.316 km 2 and situated in the central Mediterranean, consists of the inhabited islands of Malta and Gozo and a number of uninhabited islets and rocks. The islands are composed mainly of limestone of Oligo-Miocene age. Soils are young, show little horizon development, and are very similar to the parent rocks. There are no mountains, streams or lakes, but only minor springs. The main geomorphological features are karstic limestone plateaux, hillsides covered with clay taluses, and gently rolling limestone plains. The southwest coast is mainly steep sea-cliffs and the land tilts gently seawards to the northeast. The islands are riven by valleys which drain runoff during the wet season. The average annual rainfall is c . 530 mm of which some 85% falls during the period October to March. The mean monthly temperature range is 12-26°C. The islands are very windy and sunny. Natural water resources depend on percolating rainwater which collects in limestone aquifers. The flora and fauna are rich with c. 2,000 species of plants and more than 3,000 species of animals recorded to date; a relatively large number of species are endemic. The main ecosystems are maquis, garrigue and steppe. Minor ones include patches of woodland, coastal wetlands, sand dunes, freshwater and rupestral communities and those of caves. Human impact is significant. The resident population density is 1,140 per km2. Some 38% of the land area is cultivated and c.16% is built up. Environmental problems include accelerated soil erosion, quarrying, disposal of waste, high levels of chlorides and nitrates in the water supply, and loss of habitats and wildlife. The most important environmental issue at present is the rational use of land, a problem which is only now being tackled by the Maltese Government. ; peer-reviewed

This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7-2007-2013) (Grant agreement No. 323727).

In 1992 the European Union (henceforth referred to as the EU) adopted a Council Directive on the conservation of natural habitats and wild fauna and flora that became known as the 'Habitats Directive'. This Directive contains a range of measures aimed at the protection of species and habitats of EU interest. One of these measures requires each Member State to forward to the European Commission a list of sites proposed for inclusion in a EU-wide network of protected areas known as NATURA 2000. Sites adopted at Community level will be designated by Member States as Special Areas of Conservation (SACs). ; peer-reviewed

Most ecological work on rocky shores entails the quantification of species distributions and abundances relative to some convenient and accurate datum point. The most commonly used are tide Ievels and chart data. The problem arises when tides are virtually absent as in most of the Mediterranean Sea or when accurate chart data are not available. In the Maltese Islands there is only one datum point located in the Grand Harbour, Valletta. A number of bench marks and trigonometric stations of various orders are found scattered all over the Islands, but these are not always located very close to the shore so that levelling work from these stations to a particular study site may become quite a laborious task which may exceed the capabilities of most ecologists. Furthermore, some of these marks are old and location data for them are untraceable, while others have turned out to be inaccurate. In fact a project is currently underway by the Mapping Unit of the Planning Authority to recalibrate these stations and to establish new bench marks. A further complicating factor is that different charts make use of different datum points. Thus, while Admiralty Charts use a zero point (Chart datum) which is the level of lowest astronomical tide and the level to which all bathymetric soundings are referred, all heights shown on the official Government of Malta survey sheets use a datum point which is 0.5859m above the Admiralty Chart datum and which is taken to be mean sea level (MSL) for the Maltese Islands. Additionally, there is also a Public Works Department (PWD) datum which is 0.4100m above the AdmiraIty Chart datum. It is not always clearly stated which datum points charts and maps are based on. This state of affairs has resulted in field workers having to resort to some other datum point with which to relate all their data, including the so called "biological zero". However, this also has its own set of problems. ; peer-reviewed

Several EU Directives and regional conventions are concerned with the protection and conservation of marine habitats of special importance; a necessary prerequisite to implement such legislation are marine habitat classification systems and information on the distribution of marine habitat types. There are several habitat classification schemes in use for the description, designation and monitoring of habitats. The 'Interpretation Manual for Marine Habitats within the 25 NM Fisheries Management Zone around the Republic of Malta' provides an updated description of marine habitats found around the Maltese Islands, as well as a cross-referencing scheme for the different habitat classification systems. Marine habitats are listed according to bathymetric zone, going from shallow to deep water. The bathymetric zones included in the interpretation manual are: (1) mediolittoral, (2) infralittoral, (3) circalittoral, and (4) bathyal. Habitats listed in the European Nature Information System (EUNIS) database were reviewed, habitats which are present in the Maltese Islands were identified, and 'new' habitat categories have been included in the manual where there was no equivalent EUNIS habitat. For each habitat category presented, cross- references to the system used in connection with the Protocol for Specially Protected Areas and Biodiversity in the Mediterranean (SPABM) of the Barcelona Convention, to the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) classification system of predominant habitat types, as well as to the marine habitats listed in Annex I of the 'Habitats Directive', were established. In addition a scheme to enable the assessment of the conservation status of marine habitats as required under the 'Habitats Directive' was drawn up by considering the habitat range, the area occupied by a habitat, habitat structure and function, and the habitat's future prospects. Suitable indicators to assess favourable conservation status are presented for (i) sandbanks, (ii) Posidonia beds, (iii) reefs and (iv) sea caves. In addition, indicators to assess the conservation status of maerl beds are presented due to the local significance and the sensitivity of this habitat. The manual thus intends to aid in the implementation of measures for the protection of marine habitats and hence, ultimately, to ensure effective and efficient management of the marine environment under the jurisdiction of Malta up to the 25 NM boundary, in line with the relevant legislation. ; peer-reviewed

The Maltese top-shell, Gibbula nivosa, was first described by A. Adams in 1851, who, however, did not state from where the specimens he described had originated. Comparisons of Adams' type material with shells collected from around the central Mediterranean island of Malta established that G. nivosa occurs at this locality (Ghisotti, 1976), while it has never been recorded from anywhere else in the Mediterranean, despite extensive searches by shell collectors (Schembri, 1985). Such a situation is practically unique amongst marine molluscs within the whole Mediterranean region (Palazzi, 1978) and G. nivosa is now firmly established as a Maltese endemic (Ghisotti, 1976) and is protected under local and European Union legislation as well as by international conventions (the Bern Convention and Barcelona Convention). ; non peer-reviewed

This research work was partly funded through a Malta Government Scholarship Scheme grant (ME 367/07/35) awarded to JE. ; Live animals of the trochid gastropod Gibbula nivosa, which is endemic to the Maltese Islands, have not been recorded for over 25 years despite recent intensive searches in localities where good populations used to be found. Sampling carried out at Marsamxett Harbour and Comino has yielded live individuals from accumulations of cobbles and pebbles, showing that this is an important habitat for G. nivosa and confirming that this species is not extinct, although it should still be regarded as 'critically endangered'. ; peer-reviewed

The European Red List of Habitats provides an overview of the risk of collapse (degree of endangerment) of marine, terrestrial and freshwater habitats in the European Union (EU28) and adjacent regions (EU28+), based on a consistent set of categories and criteria, and detailed data and expert knowledge from involved countries. A total of 257 benthic marine habitat types were assessed. In total, 19% (EU28) and 18% (EU28+) of the evaluated habitats were assessed as threatened in categories Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable. An additional 12% were Near Threatened in the EU28 and 11% in the EU28+. These figures are approximately doubled if Data Deficient habitats are excluded. The percentage of threatened habitat types differs across the regional seas. The highest proportion of threatened habitats in the EU28 was found in the Mediterranean Sea (32%), followed by the North-East Atlantic (23%), the Black Sea (13%) and then the Baltic Sea (8%). There was a similar pattern in the EU28+. The most frequently cited pressures and threats were similar across the four regional seas: pollution (eutrophication), biological resource use other than agriculture or forestry (mainly fishing but also aquaculture), natural system modifications (e.g. dredging and sea defence works), urbanisation and climate change. Even for habitats where the assessment outcome was Data Deficient, the Red List assessment process has resulted in the compilation of a substantial body of useful information to support the conservation of marine habitats. ; peer-reviewed

The present survey of the terrestrial ecological resources of the Qawra/Dwejra area, Western Gozo has been commissioned by Nature Trust (Malta). The report describes the late dry-season terrestrial environment within an area that follows the boundaries of the proposed Qawra/Dwejra Heritage Park and evaluates the ecological and conservation significance of the biotic assemblages present within this area. The present study is being carried out in the context of the Dwejra LIFE project, awarded to Nature Trust (Malta) under the LIFE-Third Countries component of the European Union's LIFE programme (Commission Reference: LIFE03 TCY/MT/000047). The Project was awarded to Nature Trust (Malta) in 2003 and runs from 1st April 2004 to 31st March 2007. Project partners include the Malta Environment and Planning Authority and Associazione Italiana per il WWF. The general aims of the project are as follows: Development of a restoration / conservation and management plan. Establishment of a framework for environmental management. Strengthening of current administrative and enforcement capacities. Implementation of environmental education programmes through the creation of an eco-tourism and environmental education site. Use of the project as a demonstration for the creation of further coastal nature reserves. Creation of a Coastal Nature Reserve which conforms with the objectives of the Coastal Zone Management Subject Plan, as well as the Structure Plan for Malta and Gozo. ; peer-reviewed

Data from MEDITS trawl surveys in the waters surrounding the Maltese Islands were analysed to characterise the benthic and demersal assemblages of the central Mediterranean, which are only poorly known, hampering Maltese authorities in meeting legislative obligations. A total of 147 benthic species and 98 demersal species were identified. These formed four well-defined assemblages, whose structure and composition were related to depth. Total species richness and abundance of both demersal and benthic species decreased with depth. The most abundant structuring epibenthic species which characterised the identified assemblages were the tall sea pen Funicularia quadrangularis (present at depths of ca. 50–700 m), the red sea pen Pennatula rubra (ca. 100–450 m), the hydroids Lytocarpia myriophyllum (ca. 100–250 m) and Nemertesia sp. (ca. 100–600), the soft coral Alcyonium palmatum (ca. 100–400 m), and the anemone Actinauge richardi (ca. 100–600 m). These results illustrate how, in the absence of dedicated benthic mapping studies, MEDITS data can be used to provide preliminary information that would not otherwise be available. ; peer-reviewed

Recognising that the seas is one of the Maltese Islands main resources, recent environmental protection legislation pays particular attention to the coastal zone and shallow seas off the islands. Under this legislation, the terrestrial areas of three islands and a number of coastal sites, have been declared nature reserves. However, at present there are no marine protected areas within Maltese territory. Marine activates are restricted in certain sea areas round the Maltese Islands, but this is for reasons of security. One factor hindering the establishment of marine protected areas is lack of knowledge as to which ecosystems are in need of protection. In order to address this deficiency, a survey was carried out to identify coastal and shallow water habitats which are threatened. The results of the survey are summarised below. For each habitat type recognised as in need of protection, status, exploitation and threats are reported upon in the order. ; peer-reviewed

Molluscs often have quite specific environmental requirements (Evans 1978, 82; Giusti et al. 1995; Schembri et al. 2018). Many species require only a few square metres of habitat, so they are excellent micro-habitat indicators. Their shells can be dispersed, for instance by running water, but generally, compared with other biotic materials used in palaeoecology (such as pollen grains or seeds), they do not disperse far from their life habitat and therefore provide important indications of local environments. Alkaline sediments, which are very common in the Maltese Islands, will preserve molluscan shells and other calcareous biogenic material over thousands of years. This makes the analysis of molluscan shells potentially a very important tool for the reconstruction of past environments in Malta. Geologists and archaeologists recognized the value of molluscs as palaeoenvironmental indicators as early the first quarter of the nineteenth century ad (Conybeare 1824; Preece 1998; Evans & O'Connor 2005, 41). Molluscan analysis is still, however, comparatively rare as a palaeoenvironmental tool, and for instance is less commonly used than pollen analysis (e.g. Preece 1998, 158; Fenech 2007). In the Maltese Islands, the application of the technique has been limited and there has been no comprehensive palaeoenvironmental study using molluscan analysis. Trechmann (1938), Giusti et al. (1995) and Hunt (1997) used the sporadic occurrence of land snails in Maltese Quaternary deposits as an indication that these had accumulated in open, exposed conditions. The highly cemented Quaternary deposits precluded anything other than the production of species lists by these authors. Pedley (1980) suggested a brackish depositional environment for the Pleistocene Fiddien Valley Tufa on molluscan evidence. Fenech (2007) and Marriner et al. (2012) analysed cores taken in Holocene estuarine deposits at Marsa and Burmarrad, respectively. These studies showed the progress of the Holocene marine transgression and the infilling of the estuaries, and Fenech (2007) also showed the persistence of open, exposed terrestrial environments in the catchment of the Marsa estuary over c. 7000 years. At the Neolithic Xagħra Brochtorff Circle (Schembri et al. 2009) and the Neolithic and later temple site at Tas-Silġ (Fenech & Schembri 2015), molluscan analysis demonstrated long histories of anthropogenic disturbance and sparse vegetation since the later Neolithic, but a considerable portion of these studies was done on shells recovered by troweling and dry sieving with a large fraction and therefore subject to a form of taphonomic bias caused by the exclusion of most very small taxa. Analysis of a cave fill near Victoria on Gozo, based on assemblages recovered by sieving, identified a phase of spectacular erosion caused by Classical period agricultural practices, followed by a more stable grazed landscape in the Medieval and post-Medieval periods (Hunt & Schembri 2018). Inevitably, the research done before the start of the FRAGSUS Project was very partial in coverage. The environmental history of the Maltese Islands was still largely unknown. [excerpt] ; This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7-2007-2013) (Grant agreement No. 323727). ; peer-reviewed

This chapter sets the scene in terms of the geology and present-day climate, vegetation and soils of the Maltese Islands. Geology and faulting has had a huge influence on topography, soils and vegetation, and in turn on the nature of human use and exploitation of the islands. All of these themes are further developed below (and in FRAGSUS Volumes 2 and 3), giving time-depth to the sequences of climatic, environmental and landscape changes throughout the Holocene. ; This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7-2007-2013) (Grant agreement No. 323727). ; peer-reviewed

This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7-2007-2013) (Grant agreement No. 323727).