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Care economy refers to the sector of economic activities, both paid and unpaid, related to the provisions of social and material care, which contribute to nurturing and supporting the present and future populations. Broadly, it includes direct and indirect care of children, the elderly and the disabled, health care, education, and as well, financial and other personal and domestic services aimed at supporting and enhancing individual well-being. Although largely invisible and scarcely accounted in national account systems, such as GDP, care and care work is increasingly recognized as essential for the maintenance of capability and well-being of individuals, and for the functioning of society and the economy. In almost all high- and middle-income countries the combination of the shift from an industrial/manufacturing to aservice-based economy and the steady socio-demographic changes over the last several decades have made care economy an increasingly relevant social, economic and political issue today. Yet, despite growing awareness, the concept of the care economy remains ambiguous and the research on the topic germinal. The objectives of this paper are to: 1) trace and elucidate the ideas around the care economy; 2) analyze key concepts and debates around the idea of the care economy that may contribute to future research; and 3) discuss a potential research and policy agenda for understanding care economies today. I draw mostly from feminist research within the fields of social policy and welfare states, economy, sociology and political economy, highlighting some of the key debates and areas of convergence.

Care economy refers to the sector of economic activities, both paid and unpaid, related to the provisions of social and material care, which contribute to nurturing and supporting the present and future populations. Broadly, it includes direct and indirect care of children, the elderly and the disabled, health care, education, and as well, financial and other personal and domestic services aimed at supporting and enhancing individual well-being. Although largely invisible and scarcely accounted in national account systems, such as GDP, care and care work is increasingly recognized as essential for the maintenance of capability and well-being of individuals, and for the functioning of society and the economy. In almost all high- and middle-income countries the combination of the shift from an industrial/manufacturing to aservice-based economy and the steady socio-demographic changes over the last several decades have made care economy an increasingly relevant social, economic and political issue today. Yet, despite growing awareness, the concept of the care economy remains ambiguous and the research on the topic germinal. The objectives of this paper are to: 1) trace and elucidate the ideas around the care economy; 2) analyze key concepts and debates around the idea of the care economy that may contribute to future research; and 3) discuss a potential research and policy agenda for understanding care economies today. I draw mostly from feminist research within the fields of social policy and welfare states, economy, sociology and political economy, highlighting some of the key debates and areas of convergence.

This article examines how culture, institution, and social policies interact to shape national approaches to care and the use of migrant care workers. I compare Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore to show variations in approaches to care and migration despite their cultural similarities. Through a conceptual framework that intersects culture, institution and policy I identify a spectrum of approaches that are evident across East Asia, ranging from highly regulated institutional to very liberal market oriented. The analysis shows that cultural, institutional and socio-economic factors are continuously interacting with each other to shape national understandings of care and the use of foreign care workers, and that different policies interact with each other referentially as they develop and affect social and cultural norms through policy feedback.

AbstractIn the 1990s, the Japanese government made transformative policy change by significantly expanding social care, thereby contradicting the core of the country's familialistic welfare principle of non‐state intervention in the family. Remarkably, social care expansions were widely accepted by the public as necessary, if not welcome, changes to deal with low fertility and an ageing society. Japanese people seemed to have no problem accepting that the rapid demographic ageing and the 'modernization' of the family necessitated outsourcing childcare and elder care. As the supply of native‐born care workers continued to shrink, the Japanese government began turning to foreign care workers. Unlike the case of social care expansion, however, immigration policy changes are proving difficult. Despite ample motivations, opportunities, and positive political mobilization, policy reforms have been slow and are far from achieving their goals. Most Japanese citizens are highly ambivalent about opening up the country to immigration, and the idea of immigration and multicultural societies remains disconnected from that of a shared national identity premised on ethnic and cultural homogeneity. This article shows the importance of public sentiments and national collective imaginary in policy change.

ABSTRACTRecent social policy reforms in South Korea indicate a progressive shift by a conservative government to modify the familialistic male breadwinner model that informs its welfare regime. The Korean government has demonstrated support for women through an increase in the provision, regulation and coordination of childcare and workplace support programmes for working parents. At the same time, labour market reforms have also created more pressures on women to seek and maintain paid work outside the home. Conflicting social and economic policy objectives have resulted in a confusing mix of policies, advancing and impeding gender equality at the same time. This contribution examines the recent family–work reconciliation policy reforms in Korea and discusses why these reforms may be good politics but a bad deal for women.

Resumen.El Gobierno de la República de Corea viene ampliando notablemente desde el año 2000 su sostén a la asistencia a los niños y las personas mayores. Aunque ello ha creado más empleos para las mujeres, ha confinado a una parte de los cuidadores en puestos de los servicios sociales que están frecuentemente mal pagados y se encuentran infravalorados por la sociedad. La autora sostiene que las políticas so‐ciolaborales han propiciado la aparición de grandes diferencias de salarios y demás condiciones de trabajo entre los cuidadores. La situación laboral de los que atienden a la infancia ha mejorado gracias a la reglamentación y la expansión de los servicios públicos, mientras que empeoraba la de los que atienden a personas mayores, debido a la mercantilización.

Résumé.En République de Corée, la chute de la fécondité, l'augmentation de la longévité, les stratégies d'«investissement social» du gouvernement pour passer d'une économie industrielle à postindustrielle et son aide aux femmes pour concilier responsabilités familiales et professionnelles ont produit des résultats mitigés pour les travailleuses des activités de soin, peu rémunérées et au statut professionnel médiocre. L'auteure présente les politiques menées et fait part d'entretiens avec ces travailleuses, ainsi qu'avec des experts et des chercheurs. Elle montre que davantage de réglementation et de garderies publiques ont certes amélioré leur situation, mais la déréglementation et la marchandisation des services aux personnes âgées l'ont aussi détériorée.

Abstract.A falling fertility rate, increasing longevity, government "social investment" strategies to achieve the transformation from industrial to post‐industrial economy, and increased state support to help women balance family and work responsibilities – all these influences have produced mixed results for the poorly paid female care workers in low‐status jobs in the Republic of Korea. The author summarizes policy changes and reports on interviews with childcare and elder‐care workers, policy experts and researchers, showing that though increased regulation and expansion of public childcare have led to some improvements, the deregulation and marketization of elder‐care have resulted in worsening conditions for elder‐care workers.

Peng reviews INEQUALITY AMID AFFLUENCE: Social Stratification in Japan by Junsuke Hara and Kazuo Seiyama and translated by Brad Williams.