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The Ifugao inhabit the western mountain ranges of northern Luzon, which is an island of the Philippines. The Ifugao are agriculturalists and use extensive rice terraces with irrigation. Settlements consist of autonomous districts, each containing several hamlets; neither chiefs nor councils are present. Although the Ifugao have had contact with Christian missionaries, the remoteness of Ifugao settlements and elaborate traditional religious beliefs have prevented substantial Christian influence. The Ifugao religion consists of, "a mixture of exceedingly complex polytheism, ancestor worship, and a mythology that is used as an instrument of magic" (Barton, 1919:10). Anyone may study to become a priest; consequently, almost every adult man is one. Because the Ifugao do not have official political leadership, and religion is tied up with the function of almost all aspects of life, this entry considers the religious group to be coterminous with the society at large. This entry focuses around the time of 1910. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

The Siriono are a seminomadic indigenous people who occupy an area of about 200 square miles in Northeastern Bolivia (Holmberg, 1960:4). This entry focuses on the Siriono living in the vicinity of the Rio Blanco around the time of 1942. At this time, the Siriono had very limited contact with outsiders. The Siriono lived in seminomadic bands led by chiefs. The position of chief was held on the basis of prestige, and was more about social status than actual authority. The Siriono did not have an official political leadership position, and the nuclear family was the main social and economic unity. The Siriono religion was minimally developed, and did not play a large role in the daily lives of individuals. There was no complex religious system, no shamans or priests, and no extensive mythology or folklore. Rather, the religion consisted of taboos, ceremonies, and the belief in spirits and the moon as the creator deity. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

The Mapuche have traditionally inhabited south-central Chile. The Mapuche were incorporated into the Chilean government through a reservation system established in the 1880's (Faron, 1960). Despite this reservation system and contact with missionaries, the Mapuche religion remained un-Christianized (Faron, 1964:199). The religious beliefs involve a variety of supernatural beings, including a supreme god, regional deities, deified ancestral spirits, and the spirits of the recently deceased, which are the Mapuche's closest connection to the realm of the supernatural. Religious practitioners are either shamans (machis), who are generally benevolent, lead rituals, and practice medicine, or witches (kalkus), who are generally evil and are involved with malevolent spirits and practices. The most important religious ceremonies among the Mapuche are Ñillatun and Awn. Ñillatun is an agricultural rite for general protection and prosperity, and Awn are funeral rites, which are important for getting souls of the recently deceased to the afterlife. Because religious beliefs are integrated with Mapuche society, this entry considers the religious group to be coterminous with the society at large. This entry focuses on the Mapuche living in the vicinity of Temuco, Chile, around the time of 1950. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

The Tallensi are agriculturalists living in scattered groupings across northern Ghana. "They constitute a homogenous group both culturally and linguistically, but do not show strong political unity as an ethnic group in the sense ethnicity is commonly manifested and experienced. A majority of the Tallensi live in the basin of the Volta River in northern Ghana. But they have no fixed territorial boundaries, nor are they precisely marked off from neighboring groups by cultural or linguistic usages" (Adem, 2010). The Tallensi religion consists of a system of ancestor worship, and includes ritual practices and divination. Each lineage possesses a group of ancestor spirits, and ritual activities are led by a lineage head. Multiple lineages occasionally come together as a clan for activities such as harvest rituals, but religion is generally practiced at the individual lineage level. The society is best described as coterminous with the religion. This entry focuses on the Volota River basin of Northern Ghana, ca. 1934. At this time, British rule had recently ended, and the administration was changed to Indirect Rule. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

The Aymara are located on the Bolivian and Peruvian altiplano near Lake Titicaca. This entry focuses specifically on the ayllu (the Aymara's largest political unit, roughly comparable to a village or town) near Chucuito, Peru around the time of 1940. Since 1820, the Aymara have been under rule by the Bolivian and Peruvian Republics. Historically, the Aymara have faced pressure by dominant groups, beginning with their conquest by the Inca around 1430, and later the Spanish Conquest in the 1530's. With the Spaniards came missionaries and the Aymara soon had contact with First Dominicans, Jesuits, Catholics, and Protestants. Spanish Catholicism was particularly influential, and has been incorporated into the Aymara's traditional beliefs. Consequently, the Aymara have a variety of supernatural beings, including Christian deities (God/Christ, the Virgin, and Saints), as well as aboriginal deities (guardians, place spirits, physiographical and meteorological spirits, and demons). Further, there are several types of religious specialists (see Tschopik, 1951:219d). The paqo (magician) is selected by God, communicates with supernatural beings, practices divination, and leads private rituals and public ceremonies. This entry considers the Aymara religious group to be coterminous with the society itself. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

The Orokaiva consist of several tribes that reside in the Oro Province of Papua New Guinea. The Orokaiva have a history of European contact, as Papua New Guinea was annexed by the British government in 1888, and subsequently became an Australian territory in 1905. This entry focuses specifically on the Aiga tribe around the time of 1925, as the Aiga are at this point "less contaminated by European influence than most of the others" (Williams and Murray, 1930:7). This entry considers the Orokaiva religious group to be coterminous with the society at large; the religious sphere of Orokaiva life is bound up with the functioning of the society as a whole. The Orokaiva religion is concerned primarily with spirits of the dead. A Taro Cult was established in the early 1900's, and was originally directed toward supplicating taro spirits. This quickly shifted towards the placation of spirits of ancestors and departed relatives, who are said to control taro growth. The Orokaiva Taro Cult is both a fertility cult and cult of the dead. Religious practitioners (called taro men) act as medicine men, sorcerers, and weather magicians. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

The Pawnee are an American Indian group now living in the state of Oklahoma. Historically, the Pawnee inhabited the Loupe, Platte, and Republican River valley region of what is now Nebraska. The Pawnee were relocated to their current reservation lands by the Pawnee Indian Agency in 1874, following over four decades of land cessions and treaties with the U.S. Federal Government. This entry focuses more specifically on the Skidi band (one of the four Pawnee bands of the time) around the time of 1867--prior to the reservation era. Religious beliefs and practices permeated many aspects of Pawnee life, consequently, this entry considers the religious group to be coterminous with the society at large. Traditional Pawnee religion was characterized by a series of ceremonies throughout the year, which were largely associated with subsistence activities such as planting, harvesting, and hunting. Priests and medicine men functioned as religious practitioners who communicated with the supernatural, led ceremonies, and performed healing rituals. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

The Barama River Carib inhabit the tropical forest area along the Barama River waterway in Guyana. Contact with outside societies is limited, and the Barama Carib's religious beliefs do not appear to be greatly influenced by Christianity. Their religious beliefs include an otiose high god, present but distant and avoided spirits of the deceased, and a variety of other non-human spirits. The piaiyen is a priestly figure who, through training and experience, is able to communicate with the supernatural as well as act as a medical practitioner. There is no official political leadership office, but local headmen are present and chosen on the basis of personality, power, and strength. Because the activities of the religious group are tied up with the functions of the society at large, this entry considers the religious group to be coterminous with the society itself. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

This entry focuses on the Copper Inuit around the time of 1915, which is prior to extensive contact with outsiders. "The people of the Canadian Arctic most often referred to as Copper Inuit had no name for themselves as a total group, but rather referred only to local groups" (Damas, 1996). The Copper Inuit, at the time this entry focuses on, were nomadic and inhabited the coastal regions of the Coronation Gulf, ranging from Victoria Island in the north and the opposite shores in the south, to the Kent Peninsula in the east and Stapylton Bay in the west. The Copper Inuit did not have official political leadership; power was fluid among these nomadic people. Their religious beliefs centered around non-human and human spirits, as well as strongly held taboos related to the separation of land and sea. Shamans were mediators between the living and supernatural, and their powers were due to control over spirits. Shamans had limited secular influence. Because the religious beliefs were tied up with many aspects and functions of the society, this entry considers the religious group to be coterminous with the society at large. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

The Maori are indigenous inhabitants of New Zealand, and trace their origin to three waves of settlers from Polynesian islands in 950, 1150, and 1350 (Latham, 2009). The first recorded European contact with the Maori occurred with Captain James Cook's arrival in 1769, and in the centuries that followed came whalers, traders, missionaries, and the British government (Hawthorn, 1944:7-11). This entry focuses around the time of 1820, before intense European influence. At this time, contact included that with whalers, explorers, and traders. The first missionaries arrived in New Zealand in 1814, but a change in indigenous religious beliefs was gradual and not salient until several decades later. The Maori did not have a distinct religious sphere; religious beliefs and practices were interwoven with secular life and thus the religious group is coterminous with society itself. The key forces in Maori religion are tapu (the prohibitions or laws emanating from the gods), makutu (magic), and mana (spiritual and intellectual power). Present in the supernatural realm are a supreme god, departmental deities/tutelary beings, tribal gods, family gods, and familiar spirits. Religious practitioners include chiefs, priests, and shamans. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

The Kurds inhabit an area known as Kurdistan, which roughly includes the Zagros and Taurus mountain ranges, and lies along the borders of Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria. Traditionally, the Kurds were nomadic pastoralists or settled agriculturalists, but now mainly live in settled agricultural communities with livestock. The Kurds are predominantly orthodox Sunni Muslims of the Shafi school, however, some tribes are Shiite (Busby, 1996). This entry focuses on the orthodox Sunni Muslim Kurds living in the town and vicinity of Rowanduz, Iraq, ca. 1950. The Kurdish religious beliefs are interwoven through many spheres of life. The religious group is coterminous with the society in the sense that the Kurds are not an autonomous political group, as, "the society is politically integrated with others in a pluralistic state within which it enjoys theoretically equal status (Column 1, Tuden and Marshall, 1972)." Therefore, religion is coterminous with Kurdish society aside from the polity, which is integrated with the Iraq government. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

The Somalis are a group of people living in Somalia, southern Dijibouti, eastern Ethiopia, and northeastern Kenya. This entry focuses specifically on the Dolbahanta sub-tribe in Somalia, ca. 1900. At this time, the focal region was a part of British Somaliland, a British Protectorate. There are no formal political offices among the Somali; the political units are lineages and clans. The Somalis are Sunni Muslims, primarily of the Shaf'i sect. Religious beliefs and practices permeate almost every aspect of the society itself. Consequently, in this entry, the Somali religious group is considered to be coterminous with the Somali society itself. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

The Amhara have historically dominated Ethiopia through military, government, and religious activity. Amharic was the official language of Ethiopia until the 1990's, and the Amhara people constitute just under one-third of Ethiopia's population. Amhara society is deeply rooted in Christianity, and "the Amhara themselves often employ the term 'Amhara' synonymously with 'Ethiopian Orthodox (Monophysite) Christian,' although their own, more precise expression for this religion is 'Tewahedo' (Orthodox)" (Messing and Skoggard, 1998). The religious group is thus considered to be coterminous with the society throughout this entry. This entry focuses on the Gondar District of Ethiopia, ca. 1953. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

The Berbers are a group of agro-pastoralists residing primairly in Northern Africa, and are united by the shared use of the Berber language. This entry focuses more specifically on the Riffians of Morocco, who are Sunni Muslims of the Maliki school. In the case of the Riffians, the religious group is coterminous with the society itself, as religion, politics, and culture are interwoven. This entry focuses on Morocco ca. 1926, when Morocco was a French Protectorate (1912-1956). Principal ethnographic sources have limited details on supernatural beings (Allah, specifically). ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other

The Masai are nomadic pastoralists living in parts of what is now Kenya and Tanzania. This entry focuses around the year 1900, when northern Masailand fell under British control, and southern Masailand fell under German control. At this time, the Masai were known as a strong military force, and lived in villages based on an age-grade system. Lineages formed the most important social unit, and groups of lineages comprised clans. Religious and civil leaders inherited their positions through membership in high-ranking lineages. The Masai religious beliefs are centered on an omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent supreme high god, 'Ng ai. Because the Masai religion permeates so many aspects of their culture, it is best considered coterminous with the society. ; Non UBC ; Unreviewed ; Other