Suchergebnisse

The article is part of the topic related to the protection of the world's cultural and natural heritage. This protection became the subject of a nationwide scientific conference organized in Poznań on June 20, 2022, titled: "The role of international organizations in the protection of the world's cultural and natural heritage. Reflections on the 50th anniversary of adopting the UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage". The author deals with the issues of civil and military protection of cultural property in the event of an armed conflict. Hence, the article refers to the 1954 Hague Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the Protocol amending it. This subject is also relevant today in the context of the ongoing war in Ukraine. The article also deals with the subject of diplomacy as a tool for creating regulations securing cultural property against destruction and describes the role of international organizations taking up this challenge. Finally, it presents the role of Poland and other countries involved in the process of saving cultural goods in the fighting Ukraine.

New Space (nowa era działalności w Kosmosie) oznacza ewolucyjny proces od ery komercjalizacji i prywatyzacji, którą charakteryzowały kontrakty rządowe (gdzie rząd działał jako najemca i nabywca sprzętu) do ery komercyjnej, gdzie rząd i firmy prywatne nabywają usługi z sektora prywatnego. Stała komercjalizacja wymaga dostosowania istniejącego prawodawstwa do aktualnych potrzeb i wyzwań. Istnieje ponadto potrzeba wspólnego zrozumienia zasad swobody dostępu do przestrzeni kosmicznej oraz potrzeba jej globalnego rozwoju.
Obowiązki nałożone w art. VI układu kosmicznego (OST) z 1967 r., dotyczące autoryzacji i stałego nadzoru, są w gestii państw. Kwestia związana z jurysdykcją staje się dotkliwa dla podmiotów prywatnych, kiedy ta wolność zostaje transponowana na poziom narodowy i prywatny. Koncepcja odpowiedzialności za działalność niezgodną z zasadami prawa międzynarodowego, w tym działalność podmiotów prywatnych, i odpowiedzialność państwa za szkody wyrządzone przez obiekty kosmiczne, w tym przez prywatnych operatorów, staje się najbardziej fundamentalną kwestią międzynarodowego prawa kosmicznego z perspektywy prywatyzacji działalności kosmicznej.
Państwa są więc zmuszane do podjęcia wewnętrznych działań, do monitorowania i kontroli działalności prywatnej przedsiębiorców. Współdziałanie międzynarodowej i krajowej legislacji jest konieczne w obliczu prywatyzacji działalności kosmicznej. Państwa kontrolują prywatne przedsiębiorstwa, mają mechanizmy legislacyjne potrzebne do ustalenia reżimu licencjonowania i monitoringu oraz system sankcji.
Wyzwania gospodarcze i te związane z bezpieczeństwem, przedstawione w pracach nad działalnością kosmiczną w "nowej erze działalności w kosmosie" i z nimi związane ograniczenia i problemy pokazują, jak ważna jest pokojowa współpraca między państwami.

States can, in principle, communicate with each other only through their representatives. Such communication takes place primarily through the diplomatic system – a global network of embassies and allied agreements. However, in order to establish (or re-establish) communication between any two states, they must agree to establish "diplomatic relations". Therefore, the concept of diplomatic relations is the key that opens the way to normal communication between states. As such, it is a fundamental element of the entire international system. The practice of political leadership meetings dates back to antiquity, but until the 19th century it was rare for rulers to meet in person. The situation changed only in the 21st century, when such "summit" meetings were often organized and replaced many traditional forms and methods of diplomacy. Such summits are often institutionalized, for example, G8, i.e. meetings of the most developed countries in the world. Their organization and course largely depend on the results of previous preparations and diplomatic talks, but ultimately they are led by experts who support the leaders of the state. ; Państwa w zasadzie mogą komunikować się ze sobą jedynie poprzez swoich przedstawicieli. Komunikacja taka odbywa się przede wszystkim za pośrednictwem systemu dyplomatycznego – światowej sieci ambasad i porozumień sojuszniczych. Aby jednak nawiązać (lub wznowić) komunikację między dwoma dowolnymi państwami, muszą one zgodzić się na nawiązanie "stosunków dyplomatycznych". Dlatego też pojęcie stosunków dyplomatycznych jest kluczem otwierającym drogę do normalnej komunikacji między państwami. Jako takie jest ono podstawowym elementem całego układu międzynarodowego. Praktyka spotkań przywódców politycznych sięga starożytności, ale do XIX wieku rzadko zdarzało się, by władcy spotykali się osobiście. Sytuacja zmieniła się dopiero w XXI wieku, wówczas bowiem takie spotkania "na szczycie" były często organizowane i wyparły wiele tradycyjnych form czy metod dyplomacji. Szczyty takie często są już zinstytucjonalizowane, jak np. coroczne szczyty Grupy G-7, czyli spotkania najbardziej rozwiniętych państw świata. Zarówno ich zorganizowanie, jak i ich przebieg w dużym stopniu zależy od wyników wcześniejszych przygotowań i rozmów dyplomatycznych, ale ostatecznie kierowane są przez ekspertów, którzy wspomagają przywódców państw.

This article undertakes a very sensitive issue: space security and counterspace capabilities and arms control. Those issues come under the sovereignty of each state and are strictly connected to national defense and policy. Counterspace, also known as space control, is the set of capabilities or techniques that are used to gain space superiority. Space superi-ority is the ability to use space for one`s own purposes while denying it to an adversary. These issues are so important now in the era of fast-growing state activities in space and under such a big dependence on space. Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT) are a subset of offensive counterspace capabilities, although the satellite itself is only one part of the system that can be attacked. That is the reason why protecting space infrastructure, in the absence of stabilized international space control cooperation and difficulties in reaching an agreement on PPWT treaty and lack of progress of international space law in this matter, is crucial by building the Space Situational Awareness system. Collaboration of states in this matter seems to be a priority.

The launch of the Soviet Sputnik in 1957 resulted in the emergence of two legal concepts concerning spacefl ight. The first of them concerned harmless passage through airspace subjected to the sovereignty of states, the second - recognition that at the height of the trajectory of a passage, space is no longer subject to the sovereignty of states (res omnium communis). In both cases, we are dealing with limiting the sovereignty of states. These issues have not been resolved to this day. The practice of spacefl ight has confirmed the freedom of spaceflight, although it has not resolved the issue of the upper limit of airspace. It is worth emphasising, however, that the decisive factor for the development of space law was the customary law that arose in 1957, because states did not protest and tacitly accepted the principle of a harmless flight.

This article undertakes a very sensitive issue: space security and counterspace capabilities and arms control. Those issues come under the sovereignty of each state and are strictly connected to national defense and policy. Counterspace, also known as space control, is the set of capabilities or techniques that are used to gain space superiority. Space superi-ority is the ability to use space for one`s own purposes while denying it to an adversary. These issues are so important now in the era of fast-growing state activities in space and under such a big dependence on space. Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT) are a subset of offensive counterspace capabilities, although the satellite itself is only one part of the system that can be attacked. That is the reason why protecting space infrastructure, in the absence of stabilized international space control cooperation and difficulties in reaching an agreement on PPWT treaty and lack of progress of international space law in this matter, is crucial by building the Space Situational Awareness system. Collaboration of states in this matter seems to be a priority.

This paper deliberates on the kind of challenges the international space business might have and what actions should the states undertake to help operators to access to space. This is a qualitative research paper. The entire material included in this article comes from dedicated conferences and seminars about space business and policy organized, legal documentation, and literature review, which refer to business security or safety in this subject. The analysis conducted by authors shows that states are forced to take internal actions, to monitor and control private activities of entrepreneurs. Interaction of international and national legislation is necessary for the face of privatization of space activities (in the domain, such as liability and jurisdiction). States have the legislative mechanisms needed to establish a licensing and monitoring regime and a sanctioning system. States should also be aware that economic and security challenges show the importance of peaceful cooperation between states according to the United Nations treaties. In such an environment, operators can be competitive and cooperative in the international space market. The constant process of commercialization of space requires adapting the existing legislation to current needs and challenges. The economic challenges show the importance of peaceful cooperation between states. As technology progresses and small satellites emerge, access to space becomes easier and cheaper. It favours small countries and their private entities. Free and undistorted competition, in line with the basic principles of operation of democratic states, should be supported by new space programs and strategies and national regulations, so as to make this space available to all. The subject of the article is innovative and new. As there is limited literature available on this subject, therefore, there is a clear need to fill this gap. The authors keep the reader informed about the latest updates and information in respect to management, policies and law regulation in ...

SDA (Space Domain Awareness) and SSA (Space Situational Awareness – SSA) have been defined as comprehensive knowledge of space objects and the ability to track, understand, and predict their future location. The purpose of the article is to present SSA initiatives to protect space systems, which are now recognized as fundamental assets of the sustainable development of each country. The destruction of even a part of the space infrastructure can have severe consequences for the security of citizens and economic activity. These systems assume the combination of all data obtained by various entities operating in space and Earth to create a common database. The SSA system was created based on the US military programme SDA (Space Domain Awareness); SSA and SDA are almost similar, but SDA is a new term replacing SSA, which existed previously. SDA is a better and improved SSA. Increasingly, the SSA programme is part of national and EU space strategies, but it is not yet possible to include it in international space law.

Space Traffic Management (STM) is a new concept referring to space activities. The highest priority is the safety and security of outer space and all conducted operations. There is no definition of STM. There is an urgent need to regulate STM providing safety and security regulations at the international, regional, and national levels. Because there is no STM definition, the regulator might use the example of existing regulations of the International Civil Aviation Organization on Air Traffic Management (ATM). European EUSST is a good example of being a "precursor" of STM. However, many questions are still open regarding specific regulations needed to create an STM system, such as at which level they should be made: globally, regionally, or nationally.

The paper was prepared by members of the Task Force for Polish Space Law operating at the Centre for Space Studies, Kozminski University in Warsaw. The purpose of this paper was to examine the challenges associated with the adoption of a national space legislation, including an analysis of the position of professionals and entrepreneurs active in the Polish space sector on the content of future Polish legislation on space activities. The authors were tasked with presenting the essential issues of Polish regulation of space activity, i.e. its subject and scope, including establishing the spatial scope of statutory regulation and addressing the issue of liability for damage and insurance of such liability. The analysis was conducted both from the perspective of the formal foundations of national legislation on space exploration, which is supposed to reflect the international obligations of the country in this area, and from the perspective of the interests of all stakeholders who bear the main burden of carrying out this risky activity.