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Frontmatter --Contents --List of Figures --List of Tables --Acknowledgments --Abstract --Abbreviations --1. Introduction --2. Theoretical Approaches to Retirement and Early Exit from Work --3. Social Variability in Retirement Behaviour: An Analytical Framework --4. Too Old to Work, or Too Young to Retire? The Pervasiveness of Age Norms in Western European Societies --5. Differential Retirement Behavior in Western Europe: Social Stratification and Cross-National Diversity --6. Retirement Timing and Social Stratification in Spain --7. Retirement Timing and Social Stratification in Germany --8. Conclusions --References --Index.

The monograph disseminates the very topical issue of retirement and its timing as the key to one of the greatest challenges facing ageing societies. Postponing retirement is now almost universally regarded as indispensable in order to relieve European welfare states from the demography-related financial pressures. This seminal study, derived from a statistical analysis of a large-scale survey data, provides a thorough understanding of the micro- and macro-level determinants of retirement timing in contemporary Western Europe. The book is the first monograph to combine the analysis of the retirement attitudes with the analysis of the retirement behaviour within one research. It tackles the question as to whether early retirement can be explained by "early exit culture", triangulating life course theory with a social stratification approach. The author used a novel and innovative approach to obtain the results. The methodology includes: tobit models of proscriptive age norms; simulations of the impact of class structure on a country's average retirement age; competing risks models of different work-exit modalities; duration selection models of retirement timing.

La relación entre género y jubilación en España es paradójica. La tasade empleo femenino entre los 55 y 64 años es apenas más de la mitadque la de los varones, mientras que la edad media de jubilación esmucho más alta entre las mujeres. Este estudio usa el análisis de lahistoria de acontecimientos para determinar si esa sorprendentediferencia de género se debe a efectos composicionales o de selección.Los datos proceden de un módulo especial de la Encuesta de laPoblación Activa (EPA) de 2006. Un innovador marco metodológicocontrasta los resultados de un modelo de supervivencia «naïf» con losde otro de tipo «duración-selección». Los resultados sugieren que lasmujeres se jubilan más tarde que los hombres sobre todo porqueeconómicamente no se pueden permitir retirarse antes.

This paper analyses social variability in retirement timing. It draws on a social stratification perspective, which arguably provides a richer theoretical framework than one-dimensional pull or push approaches. The first objective is to establish how class membership influences both the timing of retirement as well as the degree of accessibility to different pathways to retirement. The second objective is to elucidate the interplay of gender and class in work-exit dynamics. The empirical analysis uses data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) to estimate a series of event-history models for a sample of respondents from 11 Western European countries. The results show that social class exerts a strong influence on retirement processes, over and beyond other socio-economic characteristics, and especially on the risk of involuntary retirement. Employment constraints (push factors) and economic incentives (pull factors) affect workers in different class positions in markedly different ways. While there exist significant gender differences in retirement behaviour, these appear to be largely driven by women's lower class positions. The article concludes that ill health and unemployment remain heavy obstacles to prolonging working life in contemporary Western Europe.

This introduction to the special issue "Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Effort" highlights the relevance of effort as a research object and pinpoints the potential of various approaches to contribute to the advancement of knowledge on this multifaceted phenomenon. Addressing three dimensions of research—on the measurement, determinants, and consequences of effort—the article also gives an overview of the collection of articles in the special issue. In terms of measurement, we distinguish between self-reported individual characteristics related to effort, on the one hand, and behavioral measures of effort referring to task performance on the other. Concerning determinants, we review the ways in which studies find incentives, personality characteristics, and family background to affect individual effort provisions. Finally, when it comes to consequences, we discuss effort as a source of legitimate entitlement to rewards, speaking to normative theories of justice, and effort as a driver of socioeconomic achievement, referencing debates about the respective benefits of cognitive and noncognitive skills. In concluding, the article distills selected lessons learned for future research on effort.

This introduction to the special issue "Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Effort" highlights the relevance of effort as a research object and pinpoints the potential of various approaches to contribute to the advancement of knowledge on this multifaceted phenomenon. Addressing three dimensions of research—on the measurement, determinants, and consequences of effort—the article also gives an overview of the collection of articles in the special issue. In terms of measurement, we distinguish between self-reported individual characteristics related to effort, on the one hand, and behavioral measures of effort referring to task performance on the other. Concerning determinants, we review the ways in which studies find incentives, personality characteristics, and family background to affect individual effort provisions. Finally, when it comes to consequences, we discuss effort as a source of legitimate entitlement to rewards, speaking to normative theories of justice, and effort as a driver of socioeconomic achievement, referencing debates about the respective benefits of cognitive and noncognitive skills. In concluding, the article distills selected lessons learned for future research on effort. ; This Project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 758600).

This introduction to the special issue "Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Effort" highlights the relevance of effort as a research object and pinpoints the potential of various approaches to contribute to the advancement of knowledge on this multifaceted phenomenon. Addressing three dimensions of research – on the measurement, determinants, and consequences of effort –, the paper also gives an overview of the collection of articles in the special issue. In terms of measurement, we distinguish between self-reported invididual characteristics related to effort, on the one hand, and behavioral measures of effort referring to task performance on the other. Concerning determinants, we review the ways in which studies find incentives, personality characteristics, and family background to affect individual effort provisions. Finally, when it comes to consequences, we discuss effort as a source of legitimate entitlement to rewards, speaking to normative theories of justice, and effort as a driver of socio-economic achievement, referencing debates about the respective benefits of cognitive and non-cognitive skills. In concluding, the paper distills selected lessons learned for future research on effort. ; This Project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 758600). ; Peer reviewed

This article analyzes the impact of marital status and spousal employment on the timing of retirement in Germany and Spain. Retirement behavior is examined by means of event–history models, with a competing risks framework being used to distinguish between voluntary and involuntary work-exit transitions. To take account of the role of social policies, we adopt a comparative approach. Data are drawn from a 2006 special retirement module implemented analogously in national labor force surveys. The results show that spousal labor market participation plays a large role in work-exit transitions, even when retirement is involuntary. This finding questions the widespread belief that coretirement is exclusively due to preference for joint retirement shared among spouses. Moreover, widows and widowers tend to retire prematurely in Germany, whereas no such effect could be found in Spain. This finding is explained by reference to specific economic incentives arising from national pension legislation.

Can specific policies support the economic integration of immigrants? Despite the crucial importance of this question, existing evidence is inconclusive. Using data from the European Social Survey, we estimate the effects of integration and anti-discrimination policies, alongside social expenditure and labor market regulation, on the labor market performance of 6,176 non-European immigrants across 23 European countries. We make three contributions: 1) we investigate the distinct role of discrete policy areas for labor market integration outcomes, 2) we allow for heterogeneous effects of policies on immigrants with different characteristics, and 3) we examine immigrants' occupational attainment while accounting for their selection into employment. We find that immigrants' employment chances are negatively associated with national levels of expenditure on welfare benefits but positively associated with policies facilitating immigrant access to social security. We also find that labor market rigidity is negatively associated with immigrants' occupational attainment, but we find little evidence that policies aimed at supporting the transferability of immigrants' qualifications promote their occupational success. Our results strongly suggest that anti-discrimination policies are important for immigrant economic integration. Yet while these policies are associated with greater occupational success for all female immigrants, they seem to be only positively associated with the occupational attainment of higher-skilled and non-Muslim immigrant men. As this article suggests, anti-discrimination policies can foster immigrants' labor market success, yet these policies currently fail to reach those who face the strongest anti-immigrant sentiments — that is, unskilled male immigrants and Muslim immigrant men.

The first goal of this study is to examine the capacity of prominent survey-based effort proxies to predict real effort provision in children. Do children who "talk the talk" of hard work also "walk the walk" and make costly effort investments? The second goal is to assess how objective and subjective effort measures are related under two conditions: intrinsic (nonincentivized) motivation and extrinsic (incentivized) motivation. We measure objective "real" effort using three tasks and subjective self-reported effort using four psychological characteristics (conscientiousness, need for cognition, locus of control and delay of gratification) to understand to what extent material incentives affect the cognitive effort of children with different self-reported personalities. Data stem from real-effort experiments carried out with 420 fifth grade students from primary schools in Madrid, Spain. We find that some of the subjective and objective effort measures are positively correlated. Yet the power of personality to predict real effort is only moderate, but greater and more so in the extrinsic than the intrinsic motivation condition. In particular, need for cognition and conscientiousness are the most relevant correlates of objective effort. Overall, we find there is a big difference between saying and doing when it comes to exerting effort, and this difference is even larger when there are no direct material incentives in place to reward effort provision.

This article addresses the impact of economic climate, and particularly of the Great Recession, on the configuration of educational expectations among students around 14 years old. We analyze expectations regarding educational attainment conditional on school performance and compare our results across countries with varying levels of economic growth over time. We expect a changing economic environment to impact on (a) the average level of educational expectations, (b) the association between social background and expectations, and (c) the association between school grades and expectations. Using pooled data from TIMSS for the years 2003, 2007 and 2011 among 8th graders for 24 developed countries, we estimate a set of country-fixed effects and hierarchical random-slope linear regression models. Most notably, our results indicate that economic down times depress educational expectations, especially among average-performing students, and lead to a growth in educational inequalities by family background.