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Bioterrorism : cost-price fear.
Since 2001, the world has discovered that some States and terrorists groups are continuing to develop biological weapons. The anthrax attacks in the United States triggered off a wave of sending innocuous powder throughout the world, leading to a disproportionate social cost. The intense media coverage and the extreme application of the principle of precaution showed that, without weapons, pranksters and terrorists could seriously perturb the workings of our society. Criminalising avowed pranks poses the problem of freedom in a climate where fear and media agitation reign. The relative risk of death by bioterrorism, excepting the hypothesis of a planned national strategy, and the case of smallpox, remains unpredictable, but would seem to be low. All this shows how ill prepared our fragile society is in the face of new threats.

International audience ; Evolution of the industrialized society had led to a risk management policy in many domains. Assessment of health care risk in the case of infectious diseases often includes mathematical models. Results of modelling were used in France to design emergency plans against flu pandemic. We believe that models cannot predict the features of the future outbreaks because the intrinsic properties of an emergent pathogen and the ecosystem in which it is developing are very complex. Of course, prediction of future outbreaks is not possible without using models, but we think that it is an illusion to presently believe that an emerging phenomenon can be anticipated by using only prediction from models. The recent pandemic caused by the novel A/H1N1 virus has confirmed the unpredictability of infectious diseases. The rapid evolution in several domains such as antimicrobial therapeutics, vaccine and hygiene conditions make comparison with past pandemics hard. The adherence of populations to prevention measures and immunisation campaigns are unpredictable. In addition, the presentation of pessimistic models is deleterious. They impress governments and provoke fears. There is a striking necessity to develop the number and the capacities of sentinel centres to take and adapt decisions based on timely available scientific information.

International audience ; Evolution of the industrialized society had led to a risk management policy in many domains. Assessment of health care risk in the case of infectious diseases often includes mathematical models. Results of modelling were used in France to design emergency plans against flu pandemic. We believe that models cannot predict the features of the future outbreaks because the intrinsic properties of an emergent pathogen and the ecosystem in which it is developing are very complex. Of course, prediction of future outbreaks is not possible without using models, but we think that it is an illusion to presently believe that an emerging phenomenon can be anticipated by using only prediction from models. The recent pandemic caused by the novel A/H1N1 virus has confirmed the unpredictability of infectious diseases. The rapid evolution in several domains such as antimicrobial therapeutics, vaccine and hygiene conditions make comparison with past pandemics hard. The adherence of populations to prevention measures and immunisation campaigns are unpredictable. In addition, the presentation of pessimistic models is deleterious. They impress governments and provoke fears. There is a striking necessity to develop the number and the capacities of sentinel centres to take and adapt decisions based on timely available scientific information.

The human body louse is known as a vector for the transmission of three serious diseases—specifically, epidemic typhus, trench fever, and relapsing fever caused by Rickettsia prowazekii, Bartonella quintana, and Borrelia recurrentis, respectively—that have killed millions of people. It is also suspected in the transmission of a fourth pathogen, Yersinia pestis, which is the etiologic agent of plague. To date, human lice belonging to the genus Pediculus have been classified into three mitochondrial clades: A, B, and C. Here, we describe a fourth mitochondrial clade, Clade D, comprising head and body lice. Clade D may be a vector of B. quintana and Y. pestis, which is prevalent in a highly plague-endemic area near the Rethy Health District, Orientale Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo.

International audience ; Dogs are competent reservoir hosts of several zoonotic agents, including Filariidae nematodes and Anaplasmataceae family bacteria. The latter family unites human and veterinary pathogens (Anaplasma, Ehrlichia and Neorickettsia bacteria) with Wolbachia, some of which are obligatory endosymbionts of pathogenic filarial nematodes. The epidemiology of Anaplasmataceae and Filariidae species infecting dogs living in kennels in New Caledonia was studied. 64 EDTA blood samples were screened for the presence of Anaplasmataceae and filarial nematodes. Molecular study was conducted using primers and probe targeting the of 23S rRNA long fragment of Anaplasmataceae species. Next, all blood sample was screened for the presence of Filariidae species targeting the primers and probe targeting the COI gene, as well as primers targeting the COI and 5S rRNA genes of all filarial worms. Anaplasma platys was identified in 8/64 (12.5, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 4.4-20.6%) and Wolbachia endosymbiont of Dirofilaria immitis in 8/64 (12.5%, CI: 4.4-20.6%). Filariidae species investigation was performed and showed that 11/64 (17.2%, CI: 7.9-26.4%) dogs were infected with D. immitis, whereas, 2/64 (3.1%, CI: 0.0-7.3%) were infected with Acanthocheilonema reconditum. Finally, we checked the occurrence of co-infection between Anaplasmataceae and Filariidae species. Co-occurrence with Wolbachia endosymbiont of D. immitis was observed in seven dogs, one dog was co-infected with A. platys and A. reconditum and another was co-infected with Wolbachia endosymbiont of D. immitis and A. reconditum. These results are the first report of Anaplasmataceae and Filariidae occurring in dogs in New Caledonia.

Dogs are competent reservoir hosts of several zoonotic agents, including Filariidae nematodes and Anaplasmataceae family bacteria. The latter family unites human and veterinary pathogens (Anaplasma, Ehrlichia and Neorickettsia bacteria) with Wolbachia, some of which are obligatory endosymbionts of pathogenic filarial nematodes. The epidemiology of Anaplasmataceae and Filariidae species infecting dogs living in kennels in New Caledonia was studied. 64 EDTA blood samples were screened for the presence of Anaplasmataceae and filarial nematodes. Molecular study was conducted using primers and probe targeting the of 23S rRNA long fragment of Anaplasmataceae species. Next, all blood sample was screened for the presence of Filariidae species targeting the primers and probe targeting the COI gene, as well as primers targeting the COI and 5S rRNA genes of all filarial worms. Anaplasma platys was identified in 8/64 (12.5, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 4.4–20.6%) and Wolbachia endosymbiont of Dirofilaria immitis in 8/64 (12.5%, CI: 4.4–20.6%). Filariidae species investigation was performed and showed that 11/64 (17.2%, CI: 7.9–26.4%) dogs were infected with D. immitis, whereas, 2/64 (3.1%, CI: 0.0–7.3%) were infected with Acanthocheilonema reconditum. Finally, we checked the occurrence of co‐infection between Anaplasmataceae and Filariidae species. Co‐occurrence with Wolbachia endosymbiont of D. immitis was observed in seven dogs, one dog was co‐infected with A. platys and A. reconditum and another was co‐infected with Wolbachia endosymbiont of D. immitis and A. reconditum. These results are the first report of Anaplasmataceae and Filariidae occurring in dogs in New Caledonia.

International audience ; Dogs are competent reservoir hosts of several zoonotic agents, including Filariidae nematodes and Anaplasmataceae family bacteria. The latter family unites human and veterinary pathogens (Anaplasma, Ehrlichia and Neorickettsia bacteria) with Wolbachia, some of which are obligatory endosymbionts of pathogenic filarial nematodes. The epidemiology of Anaplasmataceae and Filariidae species infecting dogs living in kennels in New Caledonia was studied. 64 EDTA blood samples were screened for the presence of Anaplasmataceae and filarial nematodes. Molecular study was conducted using primers and probe targeting the of 23S rRNA long fragment of Anaplasmataceae species. Next, all blood sample was screened for the presence of Filariidae species targeting the primers and probe targeting the COI gene, as well as primers targeting the COI and 5S rRNA genes of all filarial worms. Anaplasma platys was identified in 8/64 (12.5, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 4.4-20.6%) and Wolbachia endosymbiont of Dirofilaria immitis in 8/64 (12.5%, CI: 4.4-20.6%). Filariidae species investigation was performed and showed that 11/64 (17.2%, CI: 7.9-26.4%) dogs were infected with D. immitis, whereas, 2/64 (3.1%, CI: 0.0-7.3%) were infected with Acanthocheilonema reconditum. Finally, we checked the occurrence of co-infection between Anaplasmataceae and Filariidae species. Co-occurrence with Wolbachia endosymbiont of D. immitis was observed in seven dogs, one dog was co-infected with A. platys and A. reconditum and another was co-infected with Wolbachia endosymbiont of D. immitis and A. reconditum. These results are the first report of Anaplasmataceae and Filariidae occurring in dogs in New Caledonia.

Pediculus humanus is an obligate bloodsucking parasite of humans that has two ecotypes, the head louse and the body louse, which share an intimate history of coevolution with their human host. In the present work, we obtained and analysed head and body lice collected from Mbuti pygmies living in the Orientale province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Cytochrome b DNA analysis was performed in order to type the six known lice clades (A, D, B, F, C and E). The results revealed the presence of two mitochondrial clades. Clade D was the most frequent (61.7% of 47), followed by clade A (38.3% of 47). Sixteen haplotypes were found in 47 samples, of which thirteen were novel haplotypes, indicating an unusually high genetic diversity that closely mirrors the diversity of their hosts. Moreover, we report for the first time the presence of the DNA of R. felis in three (6.4% of 47) head and body lice belonging to both clades A and D. Additional studies are needed to clarify whether the Pediculus lice can indeed transmit this emerging zoonotic bacterium to their human hosts.

International audience ; Little is known about the presence/absence and prevalence of Rickettsia spp, Bartonella spp. and Yersinia pestis in domestic and urban flea populations in tropical and subtropical African countries.Methodology/Principal findings: Fleas collected in Benin, the United Republic of Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of the Congo were investigated for the presence and identity of Rickettsia spp., Bartonella spp. and Yersinia pestis using two qPCR systems or qPCR and standard PCR. In Xenopsylla cheopis fleas collected from Cotonou (Benin), Rickettsia typhi was detected in 1% (2/199), and an uncultured Bartonella sp. was detected in 34.7% (69/199). In the Lushoto district (United Republic of Tanzania), R. typhi DNA was detected in 10% (2/20) of Xenopsylla brasiliensis, and Rickettsia felis was detected in 65% (13/20) of Ctenocephalides felis strongylus, 71.4% (5/7) of Ctenocephalides canis and 25% (5/20) of Ctenophthalmus calceatus calceatus. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, R. felis was detected in 56.5% (13/23) of Ct. f. felis from Kinshasa, in 26.3% (10/38) of Ct. f. felis and 9% (1/11) of Leptopsylla aethiopica aethiopica from Ituri district and in 19.2% (5/ 26) of Ct. f. strongylus and 4.7% (1/21) of Echidnophaga gallinacea. Bartonella sp. was also detected in 36.3% (4/11) of L. a. aethiopica. Finally, in Ituri, Y. pestis DNA was detected in 3.8% (1/26) of Ct. f. strongylus and 10% (3/30) of Pulex irritans from the villages of Wanyale and Zaa.Conclusion: Most flea-borne infections are neglected diseases which should be monitored systematically in domestic rural and urban human populations to assess their epidemiological and clinical relevance. Finally, the presence of Y. pestis DNA in fleas captured in households was unexpected and raises a series of questions regarding the role of free fleas in the transmission of plague in rural Africa, especially in remote areas where the flea density in houses is high.

International audience ; Little is known about the presence/absence and prevalence of Rickettsia spp, Bartonella spp. and Yersinia pestis in domestic and urban flea populations in tropical and subtropical African countries.Methodology/Principal findings: Fleas collected in Benin, the United Republic of Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of the Congo were investigated for the presence and identity of Rickettsia spp., Bartonella spp. and Yersinia pestis using two qPCR systems or qPCR and standard PCR. In Xenopsylla cheopis fleas collected from Cotonou (Benin), Rickettsia typhi was detected in 1% (2/199), and an uncultured Bartonella sp. was detected in 34.7% (69/199). In the Lushoto district (United Republic of Tanzania), R. typhi DNA was detected in 10% (2/20) of Xenopsylla brasiliensis, and Rickettsia felis was detected in 65% (13/20) of Ctenocephalides felis strongylus, 71.4% (5/7) of Ctenocephalides canis and 25% (5/20) of Ctenophthalmus calceatus calceatus. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, R. felis was detected in 56.5% (13/23) of Ct. f. felis from Kinshasa, in 26.3% (10/38) of Ct. f. felis and 9% (1/11) of Leptopsylla aethiopica aethiopica from Ituri district and in 19.2% (5/ 26) of Ct. f. strongylus and 4.7% (1/21) of Echidnophaga gallinacea. Bartonella sp. was also detected in 36.3% (4/11) of L. a. aethiopica. Finally, in Ituri, Y. pestis DNA was detected in 3.8% (1/26) of Ct. f. strongylus and 10% (3/30) of Pulex irritans from the villages of Wanyale and Zaa.Conclusion: Most flea-borne infections are neglected diseases which should be monitored systematically in domestic rural and urban human populations to assess their epidemiological and clinical relevance. Finally, the presence of Y. pestis DNA in fleas captured in households was unexpected and raises a series of questions regarding the role of free fleas in the transmission of plague in rural Africa, especially in remote areas where the flea density in houses is high.

International audience ; To the Editor: Q fever is an emerging zoonosis and a major public health concern in French Guiana, a French overseas region located on the northeastern coast of South America (1,2). Most cases occur in the city of Cayenne (3), specifically in the suburbs , where houses are near wooded hills (4). Genotyping performed by using multispacer sequence typing showed that MST17, a unique genotype of C. burnetii, circulates in Cay-enne and is responsible for epidemics of Q fever (5). C. burnetii transmission peaks during the rainy season, and the incidence of Q fever usually increases 1–3 months later (6). The animal reservoir of C. burnetii in French Guiana is unknown; previous studies have excluded domestic ruminants, which are known to be C. burnetii reservoirs elsewhere in the world (6). Four sero-logic surveys showed few C. burnetii– positive opossums, dogs, rodents (Proechimys spp.), bovines, or birds in French Guiana (7). In 2013, using real-time PCR (qPCR) analysis of vaginal swab samples, we showed that 6/158 (3.8%) dogs from Cayenne and 0/206 bats from the coastal area of French Guiana were positive for C. burnetii (Cycle threshhold [C t ]<35). One of the positive samples was identified as genotype MST17 (5). A case–control study among humans identified several risk factors for Q fever, including living near a forest and the presence of wild animals near the house (6). During January–April 2013, a Q fever outbreak occurred in Tiger Camp, a military residential area located at the top of a wooded hill in Cay-enne. Vaginal swab samples were collected from animals living in the area (13 goats, 8 sheep, 7 bats, 34 birds, 2 opossums, 4 iguanas, and 17 geckos); all samples were negative for C. bur-netii by qPCR. In addition, serologic tests for C. burnetii were negative for samples from all 37 small ruminants maintained near the outbreak area. In January 2014, a dead (accidental death) female 3-toed sloth (Brad-ypus tridactylus) (Figure, panel A) was found on the road near the residence of ...

International audience ; To the Editor: Q fever is an emerging zoonosis and a major public health concern in French Guiana, a French overseas region located on the northeastern coast of South America (1,2). Most cases occur in the city of Cayenne (3), specifically in the suburbs , where houses are near wooded hills (4). Genotyping performed by using multispacer sequence typing showed that MST17, a unique genotype of C. burnetii, circulates in Cay-enne and is responsible for epidemics of Q fever (5). C. burnetii transmission peaks during the rainy season, and the incidence of Q fever usually increases 1–3 months later (6). The animal reservoir of C. burnetii in French Guiana is unknown; previous studies have excluded domestic ruminants, which are known to be C. burnetii reservoirs elsewhere in the world (6). Four sero-logic surveys showed few C. burnetii– positive opossums, dogs, rodents (Proechimys spp.), bovines, or birds in French Guiana (7). In 2013, using real-time PCR (qPCR) analysis of vaginal swab samples, we showed that 6/158 (3.8%) dogs from Cayenne and 0/206 bats from the coastal area of French Guiana were positive for C. burnetii (Cycle threshhold [C t ]<35). One of the positive samples was identified as genotype MST17 (5). A case–control study among humans identified several risk factors for Q fever, including living near a forest and the presence of wild animals near the house (6). During January–April 2013, a Q fever outbreak occurred in Tiger Camp, a military residential area located at the top of a wooded hill in Cay-enne. Vaginal swab samples were collected from animals living in the area (13 goats, 8 sheep, 7 bats, 34 birds, 2 opossums, 4 iguanas, and 17 geckos); all samples were negative for C. bur-netii by qPCR. In addition, serologic tests for C. burnetii were negative for samples from all 37 small ruminants maintained near the outbreak area. In January 2014, a dead (accidental death) female 3-toed sloth (Brad-ypus tridactylus) (Figure, panel A) was found on the road near the residence of ...