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Any integration of extra carbon dioxide removal (CDR) via terrestrial or marine sink enhancement into climate policies requires accounting for their effectiveness in reducing atmospheric carbon concentration. Different accounting methods have been introduced to quantify the impacts of sink enhancements. Here, we provide a manual for the different accounting methods, accompanying the implementation of the accounting methods in a R‐file which is free for download. Hence, the material allows applying the different accounting methods and for demonstration purposes we provide a numerical example.

Bei den deutschen Treibhausgasemissionen außerhalb des Europäischen Emissionshandelssystems (EU ETS) verlaufen Reduktionen schleppend, obwohl eine Vielzahl von Instrumenten und erhebliche finanzielle Mittel zur Anwendung kommen. Die Autoren empfehlen daher dem deutschen Klimakabinett, Maßnahmen zu beschließen, die den CO2-Preis über möglichst viele verschiedene Sektoren angleichen, und gleichzeitig die Voraussetzungen für ein umfassendes und damit effizientes EU-Emissionshandelssystem zu schaffen. Auf dem Weg dorthin sprechen sich die Autoren für ein duales Preissystem aus, indem ein nationales Emissionshandelssystem in den bisher noch nicht vom europäischen Emissionshandel erfassten Sektoren eingeführt wird, das nach festem Zeitplan mit dem bereits bestehenden Europäischen Emissionshandelssystem integriert wird. Dieser Schritt sollte mit einer Abkehr von dirigistischen Eingriffen, der Einführung von Mechanismen zur Gewährleistung von Preisuntergrenzen sowie der Umverteilung der Einnahmen begleitet werden. Um die Verlagerung von Emissionen zu verhindern, muss zusätzlich ein Grenzausgleich eingeführt werden, so dass gleichzeitig Anreize für internationale Anstrengungen gesetzt werden, CO2-Preissysteme einzuführen. ; German greenhouse gas emission reductions outside the European Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) are insufficient, although a variety of instruments are used and considerable funds are spent. The authors propose that the German Climate Cabinet should adopt instruments that harmonize the carbon price across as many different sectors as possible, providing at the same time incentives and linkage options for European and international partners in joining forces to achieve efficient climate policy. They are advocating achieving a comprehensive and thus efficient EU emissions trading system across all sectors and countries by introducing initially a dual pricing system through a national emissions trading scheme in sectors not yet covered by European Emissions Trading Scheme. The introduction of national emissions trading schemes (in Germany and other joining European partner countries) should be accompanied with turning away from dirigiste interventions, the introduction of mechanisms that ensure minimum carbon prices, and the redistribution of carbon revenues. To prevent carbon leakage and provide incentives for international introductions of CO2 price schemes, the European Emission Trading Scheme should be supplemented with carbon border tax adjustment.

Since 2005, the EU ETS has provided a market-based price signal for European carbon emissions, accompanied by increasing economic research related to this policy instrument. In this paper, we carry out a review of the empirical literature examining allowance price formation. A consensus has emerged that allowance prices are significantly related to fuel prices and to variables affecting the expected amount of necessary abatement, such as economic activity or changes in the cap. However, the relationship is not robust, probably because the relevant abatement technologies change with the economic conditions they operate in. There is evidence that models explicitly accounting for uncertainty about future demand and supply of abatement are better at explaining allowance price variation during certain periods. Yet, our understanding of the level of the allowance price remains poor. We cannot say with any degree of confidence whether the price is 'right,' in the sense that it reflects marginal abatement costs, or whether there is a price wedge caused by transaction costs, price manipulation, or other sources of inefficiency. Nevertheless, the market has matured compared to Phase I, and the banking provision has induced it to incorporate future scarcity of allowances and to smooth the effect of transient shocks as intended.

Im Zentrum der aktuellen Debatte um die chinesische Exportverknappung bei den Metallen der Seltenen Erden steht die Sorge einer strategischen Abhängigkeit mit daraus entstehenden Wettbewerbsnachteilen für die europäische Wirtschaft. Entsprechend werden Forderungen nach einer industriepolitischen Antwort laut. Die dabei diskutierten Rohstoffvorratslager können dazu beitragen, extreme Preissteigerungen abzufedern und Zeit für eine Reaktion des Angebots außerhalb Chinas zu gewinnen. Allerdings sollte sich die Wirtschaftspolitik auf die Koordination bei der Einrichtung solcher Vorratslager konzentrieren und die Finanzierung der Industrie überlassen.

In 2005, the European Emission Trading Scheme (EU-ETS) established a new commodity: the right to emit a ton of CO2 (EUA). Since its launch, the corresponding price has shown rather turbulent dynamics, including nervous reactions to policy announcements and a price collapse after a visible over-allocation in Phase I. As a consequence, the question whether fundamental factors (fossil fuel prices, economic activity, weather) affect the EUA price remained partially unresolved. Today, being halfway through Phase II (2008-2012) and relying on a more mature market, we use more reliable data to investigate the extent to which allowance price dynamics can be explained by market fundamentals. We empirically test for the influence of fuel prices, economic activity, and weather variations. Fuel prices allow to test for fuel switching from coal to gas, the most important short-term abatement option for most installations in the EU-ETS. The empirical results show a significant influence of gas, coal, and oil prices, of economic activity and of some weather variations. When including the relative price of coal to gas on a forward level, we found evidence of a switching effect. Yet, on a spot level the demand effect seems to dominate. However, when including the absolute coal price the coefficient is positive, contradicting theory with respect to both the switching and the demand effect. The significant weather variations suggest that their influence on EUA prices is less driven by their effect on energy demand but more by their effect on the provision of carbon-free renewable energy. Overall, our results show that the price dynamics are much better explained by a model based on fundamentals than by a purely autoregressive model. However, the results also show that fundamentals alone cannot fully explain price dynamics and that forecasting is improved by the inclusion of time series characteristics.

Weltweit werden etwa 3 Billionen US-Dollar staatlicher Hilfen ausgegeben, um den Absturz der Weltwirtschaft abzubremsen. Dieser Nachfrageschub von 4,7 Prozent des Welteinkommens hat zuallererst die Aufgabe, die Spirale gestrichener Investitionspläne, reduzierter Produktion, gesunkener Beschäftigung, gepaart mit schrumpfenden Einkommen und damit weiter sinkender Nachfrage, zu stoppen. Gleichzeitig sollten die Programme aber die Weltwirtschaft nach der Krise wieder auf einen nachhaltigen Wachstumspfad bringen.

In this paper we empirically investigate potential determinants of allowance (EUA) price dynamics in the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS) during Phase II. In contrast to previous papers, we analyze a significantly longer time series, place particular emphasis on the importance of price variable selection, and include an extensive data of renewable energy feed-in in Europe. We show (i) that results are extremely sensitive to choosing different price series of potential determinants, such as coal and gas prices, (ii) that EUA price dynamics are only marginally influenced by renewable energy provision in Europe, and iii) that EUA prices currently do not reflect marginal abatement costs across Europe. We conclude that the expectation of a more mature allowance market in Phase II cannot be confirmed.

Weltweit werden etwa 3 Billionen US-Dollar staatlicher Hilfen ausgegeben, um den Absturz der Weltwirtschaft abzubremsen. Dieser Nachfrageschub von 4,7 Prozent des Welteinkommens hat zuallererst die Aufgabe, die Spirale gestrichener Investitionspläne, reduzierter Produktion, gesunkener Beschäftigung, gepaart mit schrumpfenden Einkommen und damit weiter sinkender Nachfrage, zu stoppen. Gleichzeitig sollten die Programme aber die Weltwirtschaft nach der Krise wieder auf einen nachhaltigen Wachstumspfad bringen.

The ongoing global financial crisis has been preceded by a steady rise in global current account imbalances. Recently, in the course of the global recession, global imbalances have declined, albeit without having disappeared completely. As the outlook for global growth gets brighter, it is important to be aware of the possibility of again arising global imbalances in the future, since many of the structural reasons for the foregoing build up of imbalances remain largely in place. This is particularly important against the background of a close relationship between the global imbalances and the financial crisis. Important steps that would help to avoid the reoccurrence of unsustainable global imbalances and contribute to stabilize the global economy in the medium run are a tighter regulation of financial markets, the strengthening of the role of the IMF in monitoring global capital markets, and the development of social security systems and financial markets in emerging economies.