Population growth has transformed the structure of developing countries' labor markets from dual sector to tri-sector. The third sector is the informal labor market. This paper attempts to analyze how changes in demographic factors have affected the natural rate of employment among the informal labor force and how much of the change in the overall rate of employment is attributable to the change in the employment rate of formal and informal workers. The total informal employment effect has been decomposed into the pure demographic effect and the pure informal employment effect. Subsequently the overall employment rate is decomposed into the informal employment effect and the formal employment effect. The reference period for the study is 1981 to 2001.In the case of males, the employment effect outweighed the demographic effect. In the case of females, the demographic effect was stronger.
Resource theory and the patriarchy perspective maintain that wives have less family decision-making power either due to their lack of valuable resources or the persistence of male dominance culture. We examine a somewhat different pattern in post-Mao urban China, where wives have fewer resources and do more housework but nonetheless have greater family decision-making power than their husbands. Our in-depth interviews of 43 couples in Beijing show that resource-based power use is common among individualized or incompatible families. However, the dominant family organization is collectivized, in which the couple shares family resources, denounces equity- oriented exchange, and is guided by relational harmony. Among the couples from collectivized families, household responsibilities are recognized as a vital contribution to the family's well-being and thus are a primary source of family decision-making power. Male dominance culture is found more evident among collectivized than individualized or incompatible couples, but its presence does not seem as strong as that of household responsibilities regarding family decision-making.
Provisional estimates from the 2001 census of India, which showed unusually high sex ratios for young children, have sparked renewed concern about the growing use of sex‐selective abortions to satisfy parental preferences for sons. According to the 1998–99 National Family Health Survey (NFHS‐2), in recent years the sex ratio at birth in India has been abnormally high (107–121 males per 100 females) in 16 of India's 26 states. Data from NFHS‐2 on abortions, sex ratios at birth, son preference, and the use of ultrasound and amniocentesis during pregnancy present compelling evidence of the extensive use of sex‐selective abortions, particularly in Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab. The authors estimate that in the late 1990s more than 100,000 sex‐selective abortions of female fetuses were being performed annually in India. Recent efforts to expand and enforce government regulations against this practice may have some effect, but they are not likely to be completely successful without changes in the societal conditions that foster son preference.
Strong preference for sons in South Asia is well documented, but evidence on female disadvantage in childhood feeding, health care, and nutritional status is inconclusive. This article examines sex differentials in indicators of childhood feeding, health care, and nutritional status of children under age 3 by birth order and sex composition of older living siblings. Data are from India's 1992–93 and 1998–99 National Family Health Surveys. The analysis finds three reasons for inconclusive evidence on female disadvantage in aggregate analyses. First, discrimination against girls is limited to the relatively small fraction of children of certain birth orders and sex compositions of older siblings. Second, discrimination against girls when boys are in short supply and discrimination against boys when girls are in short supply cancel each other to some extent. Third, some discrimination against girls (e.g., in exclusive breastfeeding at 6–9 months) is nutritionally beneficial to girls. Separate analyses for North and South India find that gender discrimination is as common in the South as in the North, where son preference is generally much stronger.
SummaryDifferences in age at marriage, fertility and contraceptive use are related to religious background, individual educational level and community level education. In general, the effects of community education are weak compared to individual level of education, but differences exist between Hindus and Roman Catholics.
The optimal production and advertising policies for an inventory control system of multi-item multiobjective problem under a single management are formulated as an optimal control problem with resource constraints under inflation and discounting in fuzzy rough (Fu-Ro) environment. The objectives and constraints in Fu-Ro are made deterministic using fuzzy rough expected values method (EVM). Here, the production and advertisement rates are unknown and considered as control (decision) variables. The production, advertisement, and demand rates are functions of time t. Maximization of the total proceed from perfect and imperfect units and minimization of the total cost consisting of production, holding, and advertisement costs are formulated as optimal control problems and solved directly using multiobjective genetic algorithm (MOGA). In another method for solution, membership functions of the objectives are derived and the multi-objective problems are transformed to a single objective by the convex combination of the membership functions and then the problem is solved by generalized reduced gradient (GRG) method. Finally, numerical experiment and graphical representation are provided to illustrate the system.
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