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Background: Febrile illnesses including malaria and pneumonia are leading causes of death among children under five in Uganda. The survival of a sick child depends on access to prompt and appropriate care. Despite government efforts to increase health care access by offering free services at government facilities, the majority of the sick children receive care after 24 hours, often with less efficacious drugs. One of the strategies suggested for increasing access is the distribution of antimalarials and antibiotics at community level. However, determinants on access to health care for febrile children are not sufficiently understood. Main aim: The aim of this study was to assess the factors associated with access to treatment for febrile children under five in order to inform the implementation of child survival interventions at community level. Methods: Four studies were conducted in the Iganga Mayuge Demographic Surveillance Site in eastern Uganda (I IV). Study I used key informant interviews (KIIs) with eight health workers and eight traditional healers and five focus group discussions (FGDs) with mothers of children under five. Study II was a cross sectional survey of 9,176 children under five. Study III was a survey of a random sample of 1078 households with children under five. Study IV used four FGDs with fathers and mothers of children under five and eight KIIs with health workers in government and Non-Governmental Organization facilities, community medicine distributors (CMDs), and attendants in drug shops and private clinics. Content analysis was used for qualitative data. Quantitative data was analysed at univariate, bivariate and multivariate levels to determine the independent predictors of delayed care or choice of provider. Results: There is general lack of knowledge on antibiotics as first treatment for fever with pneumonia symptoms (I) and use of less efficacious drugs for malaria acquired from the open market (IV). Caretakers prefer health care providers with a variety of drugs and able to do diagnostic investigations (IV). Two thirds of the caretakers consult the private sector and 27% of them among other things because they can get treatment on credit (III).There are diverse perceptions on drug efficacy among caretakers (IV). Being of low socio-economic status (OR 1.45; 95% CI 1.06 1.97) and presenting with pallor (OR 1.58; 95% CI 1.10 2.25) are associated with delay in care seeking >24 hours after onset. Children seeking care outside the home <24 hours had fast breathing (OR 0.75; 95% CI 0.60 0.87), had had tepid sponging (OR 0.43; 95% CI 0.27 0.68), had provider proximity (OR 0.72; 95% CI 0.60 0.87) and went to drug shops (OR 0.70; 95% CI 0.59 0.84) or CMDs (OR 0.33; 95% CI 0.15 0.74) (II). Caretakers more likely went to government facilities when children had vomiting (OR 2.07; 95% CI 1.10 3.89), or when expecting qualified (OR 10.32; 95% CI 5.84 18.26) or experienced workers (OR 1.93; 95% CI 1.07 3.48). Caretakers went to private providers when seeking treatment as first aid (OR 0.20; 95% CI 0.08 0.52) (III). Discussion: Caretakers should be sensitized on recognition of symptoms for pneumonia, prompt care seeking and use of efficacious drugs. CMDs should be able to do some diagnostic investigations and have constant drug supply. Using drug shops and private clinics in community interventions could complement government efforts to deliver timely treatment.

Angela N Kisakye,1 Raymond Tweheyo,1 Freddie Ssengooba,1 George W Pariyo,2 Elizeus Rutebemberwa,1 Suzanne N Kiwanuka1 1Department of Health Policy Planning and Management, Makerere University School of Public Health, Kampala, Uganda; 2Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA Background: A systematic review was undertaken to identify regulatory mechanisms aimed at mitigating health care worker absenteeism, to describe where and how they have been implemented as well as their possible effects. The goal was to propose potential policy options for managing the problem of absenteeism among human resources for health in low- and middle-income countries. Mechanisms described in this review are at the local workplace and broader national policy level. Methods: A comprehensive online search was conducted on EMBASE, CINAHL, PubMed, Google Scholar, Google, and Social Science Citation Index using MEDLINE search terms. Retrieved studies were uploaded onto reference manager and screened by two independent reviewers. Only publications in English were included. Data were extracted and synthesized according to the objectives of the review. Results: Twenty six of the 4,975 published articles retrieved were included. All were from high-income countries and covered all cadres of health workers. The regulatory mechanisms and possible effects include 1) organizational-level mechanisms being reported as effective in curbing absenteeism in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs); 2) prohibition of private sector activities in LMICs offering benefits but presenting a challenge for the government to monitor the health workforce; 3) contractual changes from temporary to fixed posts having been associated with no reduction in absenteeism and not being appropriate for LMICs; 4) multifaceted work interventions being implemented in most settings; 5) the possibility of using financial and incentive regulatory mechanisms in LMICs; 6) health intervention mechanisms reducing absenteeism when integrated with exercise programs; and 7) attendance by legislation during emergencies being criticized for violating human rights in the United States and not being effective in curbing absenteeism. Conclusion: Most countries have applied multiple strategies to mitigate health care worker absenteeism. The success of these interventions is heavily influenced by the context within which they are applied. Keywords: absenteeism, health workers, regulatory mechanisms, systematic review

Abstract Background Previous studies on vaccination coverage in developing countries focus on individual- and community-level barriers to routine vaccination mostly in rural settings. This paper examines health system barriers to childhood immunisation in urban Kampala Uganda. Methods Mixed methods were employed with a survey among child caretakers, 9 focus group discussions (FGDs), and 9 key informant interviews (KIIs). Survey data underwent descriptive statistical analysis. Latent content analysis was used for qualitative data. Results Of the 821 respondents in the survey, 96% (785/821) were mothers with a mean age of 26 years (95% CI 24–27). Poor geographical access to immunisation facilities was reported in this urban setting by FGDs, KIIs and survey respondents (24%, 95% CI 21–27). This coupled with reports of few health workers providing immunisation services led to long queues and long waiting times at facilities. Consumers reported waiting for 3–6 hours before receipt of services although this was more common at public facilities. Only 33% (95% CI 30–37) of survey respondents were willing to wait for three or more hours before receipt of services. Although private-for-profit facilities were engaged in immunisation service provision their participation was low as only 30% (95% CI 27–34) of the survey respondents utilised these facilities. The low participation could be due to lack of financial support for immunisation activities at these facilities. This in turn could explain the rampant informal charges for services in this setting. Charges ranged from US$ 0.2 to US$4 and these were more commonly reported at private (70%, 95% CI 65–76) than at public (58%, 95% CI 54–63) facilities. There were intermittent availability of vaccines and transport for immunisation services at both private and public facilities. Conclusions Complex health system barriers to childhood immunisation still exist in this urban setting; emphasizing that even in urban areas with great physical access, there are hard to reach people. As the rate of urbanization increases especially in sub-Saharan Africa, governments should strengthen health systems to cater for increasing urban populations.

Background: Previous studies on vaccination coverage in developing countries focus on individual- and community-level barriers to routine vaccination mostly in rural settings. This paper examines health system barriers to childhood immunisation in urban Kampala Uganda. Methods: Mixed methods were employed with a survey among child caretakers, 9 focus group discussions (FGDs), and 9 key informant interviews (KIIs). Survey data underwent descriptive statistical analysis. Latent content analysis was used for qualitative data. Results: Of the 821 respondents in the survey, 96% (785/821) were mothers with a mean age of 26 years (95% CI 24–27). Poor geographical access to immunisation facilities was reported in this urban setting by FGDs, KIIs and survey respondents (24%, 95% CI 21–27). This coupled with reports of few health workers providing immunisation services led to long queues and long waiting times at facilities. Consumers reported waiting for 3–6 hours before receipt of services although this was more common at public facilities. Only 33% (95% CI 30–37) of survey respondents were willing to wait for three or more hours before receipt of services. Although private-for-profit facilities were engaged in immunisation service provision their participation was low as only 30% (95% CI 27–34) of the survey respondents utilised these facilities. The low participation could be due to lack of financial support for immunisation activities at these facilities. This in turn could explain the rampant informal charges for services in this setting. Charges ranged from US$ 0.2 to US$4 and these were more commonly reported at private (70%, 95% CI 65–76) than at public (58%, 95% CI 54–63) facilities. There were intermittent availability of vaccines and transport for immunisation services at both private and public facilities. Conclusions: Complex health system barriers to childhood immunisation still exist in this urban setting; emphasizing that even in urban areas with great physical access, there are hard to reach people. As the rate of urbanization increases especially in sub-Saharan Africa, governments should strengthen health systems to cater for increasing urban populations. ; publishedVersion