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The purpose of this study was to determine how the needs of students with disabilities are addressed by state coordinators of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) during professional development activities on positive behavioral strategies, school-wide systems, and school-wide commitment to the PBIS approach. Particular attention was given to how the needs of students with severe disabilities were addressed throughout training opportunities. Although an overwhelming majority (93%) of the state coordinators believed that students with severe disabilities can participate at least partially in schoolwide PBIS programs, they indicated that this belief was not reflected in their state's PBIS initial professional development activities.

We examined the opinions of experts in the field of moderate to severe disabilities on useful practices for inclusive education across nine categories of practices: Promoting inclusive values in the school; collaboration between general and special educators; collaboration between educators and related service providers; family involvement; choosing and planning what to teach; scheduling, coordinating, and delivering inclusive services within the school; assessing and reporting student progress on an ongoing basis; instructional strategies; and supporting students with challenging behavior. An examination of emergent themes within each category yielded a rich description of the depth and breadth of practices that are perceived by these experts as useful in promoting and sustaining successful school inclusion. Importantly, many of the identified practices require some level of educational service restructuring, including redefining the roles and functions of special education teachers, related services personnel, and classroom teachers. We also found that our sample of experts relied on sources of information other than empirical research in the development of their stores of wisdom on useful practices. Although preliminary in nature, our study contributes to the growing body of literature on inclusive education. It describes a range of practices perceived by a sample of experts to be associated with successful school inclusion. It also identifies a number of important themes that can inform future research in this area.

This 7 year case study describes a young woman with moderate to severe disabilities and her use of literacy (i.e., reading, writing, listening, and speaking) during various stages of her educational career. Her use of literacy is described (a) when she was 15-years-old, after having received special education and related services in self-contained special education classes for 10 years and (b) during the proceeding 7 years, after the location in which she received services was changed to general education settings with nondisabled classmates, first in middle school, then high school, and finally in college. This change in location of services resulted in changes both in her instructional content and in the manner in which instruction and assessment occurred. Concomitantly, observable changes occurred in her social and learning behaviors. Significant changes resulted in the student's reading, writing, listening, and speaking across settings, people, content, and activities. In addition, the student's prior inappropriate social behaviors and refusals to participate in learning activities were replaced with appropriate behaviors in both instructional and social situations. Finally, the implications of the findings from this case study are discussed and recommendations are made for providing effective educational programs for students with moderate to severe disabilities, including literacy development.

This article used theory, historical records, and empirical research to make a case that inclusive education, in which students experience significant proportions of their day in the age-appropriate contexts and curriculum of general education, is a research-based practice with students who have extensive support needs. We begin by noting that there are regressive trends occurring in educational placements in our country and that these are causing alarm. Next, we establish guidelines for defining a useful, research-based practice. These guidelines include considering what education should be achieving for all students as a standard and using a view of scientific causality that acknowledges complexity. We then show how constructs from ecological theory and group processes theory, which provide accounts for human growth and learning, relate to location of educational services (i.e., context) and curriculum (i.e., content) decisions. Throughout this discussion, we show educating students using an inclusive education approach is supported by these constructs, whereas other widely used special education are not. We then review both historical and empirical data from institutions and schools and show that these data provide empirical support for the primary theoretical position of this article—that context, together with curriculum content, matter crucially when educating students with extensive support needs. We concluded that there is theoretical and empirical support for using general education contexts and curriculum content and for not using other contexts and curriculum content both in educating students with extensive support needs and in conducting related research.

Despite the repeated documentation of the positive outcomes for students with extensive support needs (ESN) when they are included in general education settings and receive access to state-adopted general education standards, there has been little systemic progress on the inclusion of students with ESN across most states. The purpose of this exploratory survey was to find out how experts in the field of ESN describe the reasons why access to general education curriculum is important, the legal requirements for access to the general education curriculum, the meaning of access and the processes by which education teams can provide access, the ability to address individualized needs within the general education setting, and the barriers and facilitators of access. The findings from our thematic analysis of experts' responses demonstrated strong agreement that "access to the general education curriculum" meant access to state-adopted general education standards; access to general education settings; and access to curriculum, teachers, and instruction that facilitate meaningful inclusion. In addition, themes related to why access is important generated thoughtful reflections on Individual Education Program (IEP) priorities for students with ESN. Barriers and facilitators are also described, as well as a discussion including suggestions for systemic changes.

The reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act and the No Child Left Behind Act requires that students with extensive support needs have access to, participate in, and make progress on the general curriculum along with their grade-level general education peers. This article suggests that the terms used in this legislation have been interpreted differently across educational personnel, parents, advocates, and researchers, and that these differing interpretations have resulted in confusion and controversy related to services for this set of students. The purpose of this article was to initiate a discussion about the role of context when conceptualizing access to the general curriculum for students with extensive support needs related to communication, physical, and intellectual disabilities. It begins by discussing the federal mandate and regulations related to access to the general curriculum. It then presents differing interpretations of the concept of access to the general curriculum for students with extensive support needs, components that comprise access, and the impact of those interpretations on services. Next, it suggests an approach to conceptualizing educational services to guide policy makers, educators, and researchers as they develop, implement, and study effective practices that facilitate access to the general curriculum for students with extensive support needs. The article concludes with the suggestion that researchers, administrators, policy makers, and stakeholders must develop and hold a common understanding of the construct access to the general curriculum that is based on findings of the extant research; and that for all students, including students with extensive support needs, general education contexts are critical to accessing the general curriculum.

This case study describes the journey of one school district as it focused for 5 years on affecting district-wide systemic change related to inclusive education for all students with disabilities, including those with severe disabilities. Information is provided about the district's efforts across 5 years, and data are provided across those 5 and 2 years of follow-up. Data indicate that the systemic change efforts at multiple levels (i.e., district, school, education team) and across constituencies (e.g., parents, district and school administrators, instructional and support personnel) have resulted in changes in placement for students with disabilities, emphasizing both placement in their neighborhood schools or schools of choice and access to general education settings. In addition, these changes occurred in a climate of high-stakes assessment, with the state department of education initiating a practice of publicly grading both schools and districts based on the performance of students on state assessments. Although the district is still engaged in change efforts, the study describes lessons learned and provides recommendations for other school districts attempting such change efforts. The data reflected in this analysis, however, convince the district that change is occurring, that change is spreading across the district, and that change is sustainable in spite of changes in district leadership and key personnel.

A lack of empirical information exists regarding the skills and experiences necessary for teachers with specialized expertise in severe disabilities. The purpose of this study was to provide information (a) on the configuration of nationally recognized masters programs designed to prepare teachers with expertise specifically in severe disabilities and (b) on areas of expertise considered essential for teachers to work with teams and meet the needs of students with severe disabilities. The results are discussed according to the population of students, content courses, field experiences, credit hours, and resulting certifications. In addition, we discuss areas of expertise in the area of severe disabilities. We also examine whether participants perceived items within each area of expertise to be required of at least one team member with expertise in severe disabilities and whether these items are addressed in their programs. We present conclusions and recommendations for guiding teacher education programs in the area of severe disabilities as faculty evaluate and/or reform their programs.

The least restrictive environment (LRE) mandate has driven classroom placement decisions for the last five decades. It has been measured as the percentage of time students spend in general education contexts (i.e., Placement A: >80%; Placement B: 40-79%; Placement C: <40%). The mandate and its continuum of placements are predicated on the assumption that students can transition to less restrictive contexts, and that each placement will provide students with the skills needed to succeed in less restrictive contexts and, ultimately, in Placement A. Results from this descriptive analysis of survey responses from a sample of teachers and administrators of 98 elementary students with complex support needs indicate that less time in general education (Placements B and C) results in decreased access to single-grade classes, educator expertise, grade-aligned instructional materials, and general education curriculum. Furthermore, for most of the variables analyzed, the data suggest that Placement B is more closely aligned with Placement C than with Placement A, suggesting that it may function as a restrictive placement. We argue that current LRE implementation is resulting in placement and progress stagnation. To allow students with complex support needs to have inclusive and equitable learning opportunities, LRE must shift away from the concept of percentage of time in general education to requirements of student access to instruction on state-adopted grade-level general education standards within general education contexts and curriculum.

Illinois has an education system that includes regional cooperatives charged with supporting member districts in the provision of special education services for students from birth to age 22. Such support can include both direct services (i.e., early childhood services, special education classes in a separate building or in special education classrooms of the member districts) and indirect services (e.g., consulting services, professional development and coaching, assessment, related services). This interview is with three leaders in one such cooperative of 18 K-8 and high school member districts of varying size across 3 regions in 2 counties.

This study investigated the perceptions of parents of 13 children with moderate or severe disabilities in relation to their child's education in inclusive general education settings. Parents were all Caucasian and were from seven different school districts in western New York State. Their children ranged in age from 5 to 20 years, with nine having experienced educational services in self-contained settings prior to being included in typical classrooms. Audio-taped interviews of parents lasting from 60 to 90 minutes were transcribed and analyzed following qualitative research methodology. Findings indicated that, regardless of the age of their child, parents of all 13 children reported very positive perceptions. Parents whose children had been educated previously in self-contained classes reported many academic, behavioral, and social outcomes that they felt would not have happened without the transition to age-appropriate general education classes. The findings add to the growing literature on inclusion and support the trend to provide educational services for students with moderate or severe disabilities in general education settings.

"What key issues and challenges affect the lives of people with severe disabilities today -- and what should tomorrow's professionals do to address them? Aligned with the core values and agenda of TASH, this visionary text prepares professionals to strengthen supports and services for people with disabilities across the lifespan. Readers will fully examine more than a dozen critical topics in the lives of people with severe disabilities; explore necessary reforms to policy and practice; and set clear goals and priorities for improving early intervention, education, health care, behavior supports, and social services. Whether used as a textbook or a professional reference, this innovative volume will help usher in a new era of services that support full inclusion and quality of life for people with severe disabilities."--Provided by publisher.

Placement decisions for students with severe disabilities have often been based less on the students' unique learning needs but more on beliefs and presumptions about student learning, entrenched school district policies that restrict program delivery options, and other variables unrelated to student needs. In light of the benefits associated with inclusive practices for students with severe disabilities, this article examines the foregoing factors to better understand how they affect placement decisions and to identify barriers to implementing at a national level more inclusive placements. The article also addresses systems change solutions, and several new federally funded initiatives that could contribute to authentic changes in placement practices.

Research has begun to identify the breadth and complexity of contextual variables that impact the opportunities, services, and supports students with complex support needs receive across different classroom placements. Indeed, as research has suggested, placement in and of itself may determine the schooling experiences of these students in ways that can enhance or constrain the outcomes of the educational process. This study examined an array of contextual variables in relation to four types of placement in which students with complex support needs might be placed for educational services by their Individualized Education Program teams. Placements were defined in terms of percent of the school day students had access to age-level general education classes, ranging between no access (separate school) to 80% or higher ("inclusive"). The investigation used surveys completed by a national sample of special and general educators and administrators. Completed surveys were obtained for 117 students with complex support needs across all four types of placement. The findings revealed potential relationships between a number of contextual variables and placement, suggesting that: (a) student opportunities and experiences vary systematically in relation to the amount of access they have to general education classrooms and (b) the application of the Least Restrictive Environment process, with its tacit endorsement of segregated settings and specialized programs, may in fact negatively impact the education of many of these students. Implications of these findings and future research needs are discussed.