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[EN] Nowadays cartography is more and more required by users, companies and government agencies. A lot of tasks need digital, updated and quality cartography: Civil work design, planning, landscaping, environmental impact, conservation, etc. This need of cartography is mostly solved by spatial data infrastructures and map servers that make downloading and getting maps easy. Later, using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) it is quite easy to perform queries and geoprocessing operations in order to get valuable information which is difficult to get with other tools. However slivers polygons are a serious problem. They can alter the results in spatial analysis, queries and map portray. A map with sliver polygons is a map with false polygons and therefore with errors. We need to remove them. Removing sliver polygons is simple once they have been located. The real problem is to manage to locate them. Some sliver polygons are small, others are large but in both cases sliver polygons are difficult to locate and tell them apart from other polygons. Scientists have used formulas to calculate the shape of objects for many years. Today there are dozens of formulas available that could be used in the characterization and location of polygons slivers. In this article many of these shape formulas are analyzed and conclusions are drawn on whether they can be used in locating sliver polygons. ; [ES] Hoy en día la cartografía es cada vez más demandada por usuarios, empresas y agencias gubernamentales. Muchas tareas necesitan cartografía digital, actualizada y de calidad: diseño de obra civil, planificación, paisajismo, impacto ambiental, conservación, etc. Esta necesidad de cartografía se resuelve principalmente mediante infraestructuras de datos espaciales y servidores de mapas que facilitan la descarga y la obtención de mapas. Utilizando los Sistemas de Información Geográfica (SIG) es muy fácil realizar consultas y operaciones de geoprocesamiento para obtener información valiosa que es difícil de obtener con otras ...

Climate impact assessments inform climate change discussions. Integrated use of biophysical and economic models made it possible to move from assessments exclusively focused on the physical impacts, to assessments that incorporate the prospective effects on human welfare. Effects on poverty and livelihoods are better understood. However, even though structural inequalities exacerbate exposure and vulnerability to climate change, the nexus between climate change and inequality remains underresearched. We suggest ways to feature inequalities prominently in climate impact assessments hoping to encourage new research. We suggest how to use modeling capability to explore how existing inequalities may worsen in the face of climate hazards, through perturbation of natural resource systems, unemployment of production factors, a lack of access to human capital and basic services, and socioeconomic attributes that place people at a disadvantage. We also point to the policy analysis that one can develop and areas to improve it going forward.

En las dos últimas décadas, en América Latina se han reformado los regímenes comerciales para facilitar el crecimiento centrado en las exportaciones, con la esperanza de que este tendría un "efecto de derrame" en favor de los más pobres. Este objetivo se ha logrado en distinta medida y su consecución ha dependido no solo de la eficacia de las reformas de la política comercial, sino también de la política cambiaria, de las perturbaciones externas y de las remesas de los trabajadores migrantes. El cambio tecnológico también ha sido fundamental para capitalizar los beneficios de las reformas. Estas afirmaciones se basan en los resultados de las simulaciones de un modelo de equilibrio general computable que se resolvió con datos de Costa Rica, El Salvador y Honduras. El modelo se combinó con u

Chapter 1. Introduction -- Chapter 2. Conceptual presentation of the ultra vires doctrine -- Chapter 3. The ultra vires doctrine in common law -- Chapter 4. The ultra vires doctrine in European civil law -- Chapter 5. The ultra vires doctrine in Latin America -- Chapter 6. The objects clause and the ultra vires doctrine -- Chapter 7. Legal procedure to reject ultra vires acts -- Chapter 8. Ratification of ultra vires acts -- Chapter 9. Conclusion. .

Nowadays, incumbent operators are deploying GPON FTTH access network over substantial part of the countries in Europe, in a Point-to-Multipoint architecture (P2MP). This architecture is characterized by a shared fiber from the Central Office (C.O.) to a certain location where, by means of splitters, individual fibers carry the signal to/from every user. It is preferable for an open market situation, where the competition in prices and services is desirable and also enforced by local governments and administrations, to have different entry options to the market for the many alternative operators (entrants) which may come up and compete with the incumbent. For that reason, this study aims at considering different unbundling options for the Local Loop Unbundling (LLU) in order to provide multioperator access and consider the economical impact for the entrants to deploy such alternatives. The scope of this study primarily covers remedies to be imposed upon operators designated with Significant Market Power (SMP) on the basis of a market analysis procedure carried out under Article 16 of Directive 2002/21/EC [EUC02a]. However, where it is justified on the grounds that duplication of infrastructure is economically inefficient or physically impracticable, the regulator may also impose obligations of reciprocal sharing of facilities on undertakings operating an electronic communications network in accordance with Article 12 of that Directive which would be appropriate to overcome bottlenecks in the civil engineering infrastructure and terminating segments. This work deals with the following issues: • Alternatives for LLU: although there are several methods, the next three have been considered as they are the most feasible in terms of cost, scalability and upgradeability, in the number of clients and operators. [ALC10a] [FCE11c] [ISD09a] [MAS09a] [ITU08a] [WKC10a] o Move the Splitters Back. o Replicate the Access Network. o Upgrading to WDM technologies. • Results / Comparison: both absolute and incremental costs, starting from a P2MP deployment for the different unbundling strategies. Alternative operators, some of whom have already deployed their own networks to connect to the unbundled copper loop of the SMP operator, need to be provided with appropriate access products in order to continue to compete in an NGA context. For FTTH these may consist of access to civil engineering infrastructure, to the terminating segment, to the unbundled fiber loop (including dark fiber) or of wholesale broadband access, as the case may be. This work, although aiming to be general, takes the relevant data from the Spanish FTTH case. Where remedies imposed on Market 4 lead to effective competition in the corresponding downstream market, in the whole market or in certain geographic areas, other remedies could be withdrawn in the market or areas concerned. Such withdrawal would be indicated, for instance, if the successful imposition of physical access remedies were to render additional bitstream remedies redundant. Moreover, in exceptional circumstances, the regulator could refrain from imposing unbundled access to the fiber loop in geographic areas where the presence of several alternative infrastructures, such as FTTH networks, in combination with competitive access offers on the basis of unbundling, is likely to result in effective competition on the downstream level. [EUC10c] ; Peer Reviewed

Nowadays, incumbent operators are deploying GPON FTTH access network over substantial part of the countries in Europe, in a Point-to-Multipoint architecture (P2MP). This architecture is characterized by a shared fiber from the Central Office (C.O.) to a certain location where, by means of splitters, individual fibers carry the signal to/from every user. It is preferable for an open market situation, where the competition in prices and services is desirable and also enforced by local governments and administrations, to have different entry options to the market for the many alternative operators (entrants) which may come up and compete with the incumbent. For that reason, this study aims at considering different unbundling options for the Local Loop Unbundling (LLU) in order to provide multioperator access and consider the economical impact for the entrants to deploy such alternatives. The scope of this study primarily covers remedies to be imposed upon operators designated with Significant Market Power (SMP) on the basis of a market analysis procedure carried out under Article 16 of Directive 2002/21/EC [EUC02a]. However, where it is justified on the grounds that duplication of infrastructure is economically inefficient or physically impracticable, the regulator may also impose obligations of reciprocal sharing of facilities on undertakings operating an electronic communications network in accordance with Article 12 of that Directive which would be appropriate to overcome bottlenecks in the civil engineering infrastructure and terminating segments. This work deals with the following issues: • Alternatives for LLU: although there are several methods, the next three have been considered as they are the most feasible in terms of cost, scalability and upgradeability, in the number of clients and operators. [ALC10a] [FCE11c] [ISD09a] [MAS09a] [ITU08a] [WKC10a] o Move the Splitters Back. o Replicate the Access Network. o Upgrading to WDM technologies. • Results / Comparison: both absolute and incremental costs, starting from a P2MP deployment for the different unbundling strategies. Alternative operators, some of whom have already deployed their own networks to connect to the unbundled copper loop of the SMP operator, need to be provided with appropriate access products in order to continue to compete in an NGA context. For FTTH these may consist of access to civil engineering infrastructure, to the terminating segment, to the unbundled fiber loop (including dark fiber) or of wholesale broadband access, as the case may be. This work, although aiming to be general, takes the relevant data from the Spanish FTTH case. Where remedies imposed on Market 4 lead to effective competition in the corresponding downstream market, in the whole market or in certain geographic areas, other remedies could be withdrawn in the market or areas concerned. Such withdrawal would be indicated, for instance, if the successful imposition of physical access remedies were to render additional bitstream remedies redundant. Moreover, in exceptional circumstances, the regulator could refrain from imposing unbundled access to the fiber loop in geographic areas where the presence of several alternative infrastructures, such as FTTH networks, in combination with competitive access offers on the basis of unbundling, is likely to result in effective competition on the downstream level. [EUC10c] ; Peer Reviewed

How much would poor nations need to invest to eliminate poverty, get all children in school and provide adequate basic health care for all? Can they afford it? Financing Human Development in Africa, Asia and the Middle East provides some clear answers to these questions. The contributors assess feasible financing strategies underpinning actions to enhance human development in pursuance of the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The contributors analyse these strategies in the context of broader concerns of economic development in nine countries in Africa, Asia and the Middle E

This book is available as open access through the Bloomsbury Open Access programme and is available on bloomsburycollections.com. How much would poor nations need to invest to eliminate poverty, get all children in school and provide adequate basic health care for all? Can they afford it? Financing Human Development in Africa, Asia and the Middle East provides some clear answers to these questions. The contributors assess feasible financing strategies underpinning actions to enhance human development in pursuance of the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The contributors analyse these strategies in the context of broader concerns of economic development in nine countries in Africa, Asia and the Middle East. The assessments stress the importance of redesigning macroeconomic policies so as to make these more supportive of long-term economic growth and employment creation, while ensuring sufficient investments in human development in order to end poverty and overcome deep-rooted inequalities.

Las crisis recientes han demostrado que América Latina sigue siendo altamente vulnerable a los choques externos. A pesar de la recuperación económica que desde fines del año 2009, la vulnerabilidad externa prevalece debido a la alta volatilidad de los mercados mundiales. Las opciones de un crecimiento sostenible y de reducción de la pobreza dependerán en alto grado de las capacidades de los países para mitigar esa volatilidad y su impacto sobre el bienestar de la población. Diversas simulaciones generadas para siete países de la región mediante el modelo de equilibrio general computable denominado MACEPES, demuestran que choques externos típicos de un contexto de crisis mundial (deterioro en los términos de intercambio, salida de capitales y reducción de las remesas) contraen la demanda agregada y el empleo, generando "desprotección" social y más pobreza en ausencia de políticas anti-cíclicas. Ante la eventualidad de choques externos, las transferencias directas a los hogares son altamente efectivas en términos de reducir la pobreza, incluso una vez considerado el impacto contractivo de su financiamiento sobre la inversión. Este instrumento podría implementarse en el marco de programas de transferencias condicionadas a la educación o de pensiones no contributivas, pero se plantea como reto la movilización de recursos para su financiamiento.