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The virtual identity of women in the cyberspace surrounding Muslim countries is undergoing a process of differentiation from real-life identity. Although in some Arab countries women present themselves in online social networks as faceless users, in other Muslim countries, such as in Iran, they act differently. Despite the risk of possible real-life consequences, in some Muslim countries women are starting to feel free to decide how to present themselves on the Net, especially regarding the Islamic hijab. In addition, Muslim men and women are engaging in more open dialogue through their digital identities. Furthermore, social networks have given Muslim citizens a political voice, giving them the freedom to express what they object to in social or political terms. Within the context of Iranian society, this research project analyzes how the virtual and real behavior of female Muslim Facebook users varies and how the social networks are pushing them towards a kind of 'Westernization'. The data has been collected through a content analysis of 550 public Facebook profiles of Iranian female users who live inside and outside this country.

Introducción: La desinformación se ha convertido en un problema clave para las sociedades democráticas contemporáneas. Para contrarrestar esta amenaza, las autoridades públicas de numerosos países han puesto en marcha diversas iniciativas legales, tecnológicas y educativas. Este artículo aporta una revisión bibliográfica y de textos legales, que evidencia la importancia creciente otorgada por la Unión Europea a la alfabetización mediática. Metodología: Mediante revisión documental, se examinan informes y textos legales europeos y de países de la UE, con el fin de evaluar el grado de relevancia que se asigna a la alfabetización mediática para luchar contra la desinformación. Resultados: El análisis comprueba una presencia recurrente de la alfabetización mediática como una de las medidas necesarias para combatir la desinformación en el territorio europeo. Discusión y conclusiones: Más allá de simples soluciones tecnológicas y legales para combatir la desinformación, se comprueba que la Unión Europea apuesta por co-responsabilizar a la ciudadanía, mediante políticas de promoción de la alfabetización mediática. Se consolida, en definitiva, un modelo de lucha contra la desinformación basado en un conjunto de soluciones multinivel. ; Introduction: Disinformation has become a key problem for contemporary democratic societies. To tackle this threat, public authorities in many countries have launched various legal, technological and educational initiatives. This article provides a literature and legislative review, which shows the growing importance given by the European Union to media literacy. Methodology: European and EU country reports and legal texts are examined, in order to assess the degree of relevance assigned to media literacy to tackle misinformation. Results: The analysis confirms a widespread presence of media literacy as one of the necessary measures to combat disinformation in the European territory. Discussion and Conclusions: Beyond mere technological and legal solutions to tackle disinformation, this article finds that the European Union is committed to making citizens co-responsible, through policies to promote media literacy. In short, a model for acting against disinformation based on a set of multilevel solutions is consolidated.

Following the declaration, in March 2020, of the Covid-19 pandemic, there was an escalation of disinformation, involving multiple actors and reaching global dimensions. In this article, we analyze the possible causes and characteristics of the spread of disinformation on this issue. Disinformation about science can be explained by the distance that separates scientific knowledge from common knowledge and the difficult relationship between science and the media. The pandemic has multiplied the number of scientific publications and has accelerated publication rates, which has contributed to the dissemination of provisional, erroneous, or totally false information. A process of politicization has also developed, which has led to misinformation. In addition, the need to confront this health crisis has led society to demand accurate information from science, despite the fact that in many cases there is only uncertainty. The experience of this pandemic highlights the importance of providing citizens with accessible and rigorous knowledge that creates confidence in science. To achieve this, it is necessary to have specialized professionals capable of providing rigorous information, not only on the results but also on the research processes.

Internet y las redes sociales han democratizado la comunicación de contenidos sobre salud y han multiplicado la difusión pública de informaciones relacionadas con ese tema. Muchas de las informaciones sanitarias proceden de fuentes acreditadas y son plenamente solventes, lo que permite a la ciudadanía acceder fácilmente a información de calidad que promueve comportamientos responsables. Sin embargo, al mismo tiempo, en las redes circulan cada vez más contenidos sobre salud de procedencia desconocida y fiabilidad dudosa. Buena parte de esos mensajes son, de hecho, intencionadamente engañosos. Las redes, en definitiva, son una moneda de dos caras: dan acceso a contenidos sanitarios de calidad, pero exponen asimismo a la ciudadanía a diversos riesgos. Esta guía pretende desarrollar y divulgar pautas que sirvan para contrarrestar el fenómeno de la desinformación en materia de salud.