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The author presents some results of a study of organized neighborhood integration maintenance efforts in 15 urban communities across the country since 1956. Theoretical insights from three sociological fields are interwoven: race relations, social movements, and urban communities. Based on field research, sociohistorical review, and census data, three analytical models are described and contrasted representing success, failure, and conditional attempts in this movement effort. Factors of success and failure indicate the critical role of external forces and institutional processes in this social movement. Successful movement programs that maintain neighborhood integration while expanding regional housing choices are reviewed, and policy implications are presented.

Ten years ago, competent scholars thought it was impossible to measure racial discrimination directly. In 1977, HUD spent $1 million to measure the nature and extent of racial discrimination in housing. This nationwide Audit was the culmination of seven years of prior auditing conducted by local volunteer community organizations across the country. The Audit is a quasi-experimental field survey, which is used not only as a baseline for measuring changes in the extent and nature of housing discrimintion, but also as a means of implementing social change on local and national levels. Four action approaches have used Audit findings to expand equal housing opportunities for blacks: Legislation, Negotiation, Remuneration, and Litigation. These are illustrated in six local case studies. The nationwide Audit differed from prior community Audits in five ways, indicating rigorous controls and standardization. Results of the HUD Audit, though incomplete, reveal persistent massive racial discrimination in housing, with some geographical variations. Policy changes are sought to strengthen enforcement of federal fair housing laws on national and local levels.

In 1977, HUD spent $1 million to measure the nature & extent of racial discrimination in housing. The nationwide audit was the culmination of seven years of prior auditing by local volunteer community organizations. As a quasi-experimental field survey, the audit is used as a baseline for measuring changes in the extent & nature of housing discrimination & as a means of implementing social change locally & nationally. The audit has been used by four action approaches to expand housing opportunities for blacks: legislation, negotiation, remuneration, & litigation. These uses are shown in six local case studies. Differences in the nationwide audit & prior community audits include more rigorous controls & standardization. Results of the HUD audit reveal persistent massive racial discrimination in housing, with some geographical variations. Policy changes are sought to strengthen enforcement of federal fair housing laws on local & national levels. Otherwise, it is felt that the US will continue to have apartheid, American-style. Modified HA.