Suchergebnisse

Introduction. Recently, the interest of representatives of the expert and scientific community has been growing in the transformations of one of the most famous practices of rebel activity after the Second World War – the Maoist model of people's war. Its interpretations in the framework of expert support for the foreign policy activities of the USA are prompted with great attention and caution not only to the role of methodological restrictions, disciplinary filters, the intellectual climate and relations with customers of analytic products of this kind. No less important, as this article shows, are the transfers of ideas and practical experience – the usual debate about the export of democratic and socialist models of development during the Cold War often consists of a scientific discussion on the periphery of the question of the importance of exporting the Chinese model of people's war in the history of international relations after 1945. Methods and materials. Interdisciplinarity is the feature of research. The search for the political connotations in the RAND reports wrote during the Cold War and devoted to the experience of counterinsurgency in Manchuria during the 1930s demanded the use of the methods practiced by the historical and political sciences simultaneously. Analysis. Accordingly, particular attention was paid to the peculiarities of expert support for decision-making in the United States at the initial stage of the Cold War in the context of the RAND activities, which in the framework of cooperation with the Ministry of Defense practically monopolized the analytical support of American politics in Vietnam and South-East Asia as a whole in the organization of counterinsurgency in the 1960s. The focus of the research is the study by RAND experts of the historical experience of previous powers on the example of forms and methods of anti-insurgency activities of the leadership of the Manchukuo and Kwantung army in Manchuria which reveals both the phenomenon and the causes of the distortion of historical realities of the Interbellum era during the Cold War. Results. The RAND experts thought that the Chinese case of the Interbellum offered the answers on two major questions of tactics and strategy of counterinsurgency in the "Third world": on the enemy, as well as on the ways and methods to crush him. But methodological self-containment lessened critical value of that memorandum and made it more easer the infiltration of the key ideas about the Chinese model of the people's war widely presented in the government, military and political circles of the USA during the 1960s into the research made by the RAND Corporation experts.

The personality of E. Khara-Davan is a landmark for characterizing the history of the peoples of our country in the first half of the 20th century. He became one of the first Kalmyk students who received higher education at the university of the Russian Empire, and the first doctor among the Kalmyk people. He took part in the events of 1917–1920 in southern Russia, collaborated with the Russian Provisional Government, the Soviet government, and the white movement. In the modern historiography, E. Khara-Davan is quite often called a member of the Eurasian movement, who made a great contribution to the formation of its ideology. However, this view contrasts with the fact that he was not part of any organization of the movement and published only two articles in Eurasian publications. The main topic of his works was the history, current state and future structure of the Kalmyk people. There is no doubt that he was deeply influenced by the ideas of the Eurasians, which is especially evident in the texts on the Mongol Empire history as well as in his main work — the book "Genghis Khan as a commander and his legacy". His assessments of the influence of the Mongols on the development of Russian statehood were of a pronounced "Eurasian" character. However, outside of this discourse, the works of E. Khara-Davan practically did not intersect with Eurasian concepts in any way, and even diverged in characterizing the current state and future structure of the peoples of Russia.

The Saka of the Aral Sea region are considered as one of the components of the communities of the nomads of the Southern Urals. A sample of 192 anthropological analyses was studied to determine the nature of the migration of the cattle-breeding population of the Aral Sea region to the Southern Ural steppes. The analysis showed the absolute quantitative predominance of male burials in the late 6th–5th century BC and an equal number of men and women in the burials of the late 5th — 4th century BC. This ratio suggests that the initial development of the steppes of the Southern Urals was carried out mainly by male cattle-breeding teams. The occupation of the steppes could become the basis for the growth of the number of cattle grazed and an increase in the nomadic populations. The further successful functioning of the society was possible with the normalization of its social structure, which was achieved, in particular, through the inclusion of women into the cattle-breeding groups. Thus a society with a complex social hierarchy was formed. This process probably occurred during the 5th century BC and was completed by the 4th century BC. One of the probable reasons for the occupation of the steppes of the South Urals by cattle-breeding groups from the Aral Sea region with their transformation into a society with a hierarchical structure was the expansion of the Achaemenid state to the borders of the territory of the cattle-breeding tribes of Central Asia with their involvement in the system of socio-economic relations with this Empire.

The author points out that the structure of language levels system is still a crucial linguistic problem, that research in this field is far from being completed and that there is a need for further improvement of the current models of language levels hierarchy. The author sets out his reflections that sprang up from striving to eliminate some contradictions in the existing models of the language levels system. Applying the method of comparative analysis, elements of the model theory and linguistic systemology, using the Russian language material supplemented by some sporadic examples from other languages, the researcher puts forward a number of amendments to the existing models of the language levels hierarchy – amendments intended for riddance of the above-mentioned contradictions. The author argues in favor of merging the morphological and lexical levels, as well as the level of syntax and that of utterances, and offers insertion of the word combinations level at which language units and speech units co-exist, forming two intersecting sub-levels. The expediency of combining the system of language levels and that of speech levels into a common speech-language space has been proved. Using the empirical material, the author demonstrates the level boundaries blurring and existence of inter-level gaps, which contain hybrid units that have typological features of both the upper level and the lower level. The following conclusion is drawn: the speech-language hierarchy must be schematically presented not so much a column of hard and fast lines as a linguistic continuum with smooth transitions between the levels.

Introduction. The Chinese Civil War was a time of rapprochement between the United States and the Republic of China, but there were enormous difficulties and contradictions between the two countries. Methods and materials. In this regard, it seems that the information of the two main agencies of the U.S. intelligence community is able to significantly supplement the picture of the interaction between the two countries and allows better understanding of why at some point Washington was forced to almost completely abandon its support for the Chiang Kai-shek regime. The article is based on the principles of historicism and consistency, as well as the methods of historical comparative studies. Analysis and results. The excessive level of corruption, which involved numerous American structures and officials, internal conflicts in the Republic's government that influenced the situation and the course of the confrontation and were consecrated in FBI and CIA documents, contributed to the gradual withdrawal of the United States from the policy of the unconditional support for the Chiang Kai-shek regime, but the Communist victory and the establishment of the PRC made, in the absence of other real alternatives, it necessary to continue to support the Republic. The new information makes it possible to better understand how the White House treated the leader of "democratic" China and his family, as well as to better understand the role of intelligence and counterintelligence in these processes and the place of Soviet intelligence in the final stages of the heavy civil war in China (1927–1950). The materials presented in the article and their analysis show specifics and differences in approaches of the FBI and CIA on the example of work on China. The article is based on FBI and CIA archives and covers the period from 1943 to 1949.

The article discusses the influence of ethnic and religious factors on intercultural interactions in Samara Trans-Volga region in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. The analysis of inter-ethnic contacts was made taking into account the national and confessional composition of the region's population and the nature of settlement in mixed villages and groups of villages. The study is based on archival and published sources, including statistical data, as well as on the author's field materials (Samara region, 1997–2018). Intercultural interaction in Samara Trans-Volga region has historically been determined not only by ethnic, but largely by religious differences of contacting groups. Ethnically and confessionally mixed settlements were the main platform for communication, ranging from mutual hostility and socio-cultural isolation to the assimilation of one community by another. Historically, Orthodoxy and Islam acted as factors in consolidating ethnic groups within confessions in the region and, at the same time, as the reasons for the destruction of ethnic "boundaries" and formation of supra-ethnic sociocultural spaces (temple, cemetery, rural settlement, family-related circle, common holidays and rituals, etc.). Such an orientation of the religious factor resulted in assimilation processes (russification of the Mordovians and the Chuvash, tatarization of the Chuvash, etc.). At the same time, confessional differences separated ethnic groups and / or parts of one group, contributed to their relative mutual socio-cultural isolation, while maintaining the necessary level of intergroup communication in industrial and social spheres. Perception of confessional differences varied from tolerance to open hostility and enmity. These patterns of influence of the religious factor on the development of inter-ethnic relations are still relevant today.

In the given article the problem of formation of ethnic consciousness of the population of one of most poliethnik country regions – the Volga Region is investigated; from the objective scientific point of view; aspects of ethnic identification of six nations of the Volga Region as the component of social identity are considered. The point is to dwell on the undoubt urgency of the given processes influencing the process of democratisation of the Russian society.

The article discusses the relationship of V. A. Bochkarev, a graduate of Saratov University in 1930, the first postgraduate student of A. P. Skaftymov in 1930–1933, subsequently Doctor of Philology, professor, the head of the department of the Russian and Foreign literature of Kuybyshev (Samara) Pedagogical Institute (University) for many years, the author of the fundamental works on the Russian historical drama, and A. P. Skaftymov, the founder and the creator of Saratov School of Philology, a scientist of world renown. A. P. Skaftymov left philological legacy exclusively valuable in its scientific magnitude and he educated many students, the nestlings of Skavtymov's "nest", as they were called afterwards, some of them, including V. A. Bochkarev, have taken the rightful place in the literature science. The article covers the important role that A. P. Skaftymov played in the personal and scientific life of V. A. Bochkarev in his formation as a scientist and a teacher, who retained a grateful memory of his tutor. Some important memoir evidence by V. A. Bochkarev is presented, in which he dwells on the content and structure of the lecture courses given by A. P. Skaftymov, that V. A. Bochkarev chanced to attend as a student and a postgraduate, on the topics of the special seminars that A. P. Saftymov used to teach, on the reports that were prepared under his supervision, on the requirements of the scientific supervisor to the students' and postgraduates' papers, on the methods of scientific counselling, on A. P. Skaftymov's inherent feeling of democracy, that was revealed in his behavior as the head of the department and the faculty. The article considers how V. A. Bochkarev perceived and evaluated the scientific, moral and educational lessons of A. P. Skaftymov, which he appropriated for his life and reflected in his memories and letters to his colleagues in Saratov.

The article deals with the concepts of auto-document (ego-document), the combination of the artistic and documentary, "personal geography", which are relevant for the current stage of the literary process. The main purpose of this study is to show, using the example of the latest works of Russian prose, the importance of geographical addresses (understood as spatial landmarks) for the movement of the plot, as well as being a meaning-generating component not only of documentary, but also of artistic texts themselves. As an object of analysis, collections are used that have united different authors within the framework of a common problem, and works of long form, in particular, the novel by E. Chizhova "The City written from memory". All these texts are related in terms of using a single-subject narrative, in which the author and the hero are conceptualized (often he is also a biographical author) and practically inseparable. At the same time, the destinies and stories of the characters are built within the framework of the movement of their "personal" geography, and specific addresses become not only and not so much a documentary component, as a moment that promotes the plot. Against the background of authentic coordinates and routes, the behavior of the characters and their perception of the surrounding world change. Personal stories in the collection "To live in St. Petersburg" are determined by individual routes, a powerful literary and general cultural context, within which the fate of the character is predetermined by specific addresses and coordinates. The article draws a conclusion about the formation of a noticeable author's strategy, using which the interpenetration of documentary and artistic principles in literary texts is determined precisely by "personal geography".

The article discusses the place of Saratov-based plot in Yu. N. Chumakov's letters addressed to the author of the article. The subject of discussion in the correspondence is the defense of Yu. N. Chumakov's dissertation at Saratov University in 1970 and its role in his scientific biography. The defense of the dissertation with Yu. M. Lotman as the first opponent became the key event of the Saratov plot and its climax. Having singled out fragments from the correspondence related to the plot of Saratov, the author seeks to explain the direction of the ensuing epistolary dialogue, why the defense of the dissertation was perceived by Yu. N. Chumakov as a more than significant event for him, especially in the context of his dramatic biography. The author proves that the defense was an explosion of the linear sequence of the text of life, which dramatically changed the fate of the scientist. The desire to talk in detail about the defense, to find out what impression it made, and to look at what was happening on that memorable day for him through the eyes of the addressee of the letter, betrayed the desire to read and interpret his fate again and again. Particular attention is paid in the correspondence to the personalities of such outstanding philologists, professors of Saratov University as A. P. Skaftymov and E. I. Pokusaev. Yu. N. Chumakov was not A. P. Skaftymov's student and was not familiar with him, but specifically noted the acquisition and subsequent development of the principles of a scientific approach to the work, set out in his theoretical article in 1923. About the personality of E. I. Pokusaev, his supervisor, and the history of the relationship with him, Yu. N. Chumakov wrote in great detail. Having told about the role of E. I. Pokusaev, who supported the dissertation at the defense, and having outlined his complex, large and humanly attractive personality, Yu.N. Chumakov completes the plot of Saratov, which was very meaningful for him, primarily for self-understanding of his scientific path.