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'Green gas' is a sustainable alternative to natural gas. It is produced by converting biomass into biogas, which can consequently be upgraded to natural gas standards. Expectations about green gas are high. According to the long term vision of Netbeheer Nederland, the representative association of gas grid operators, green gas will entail 50 percent of the domestic gas mixture by 2050. In line with this vision national government has adopted a green gas innovation support program. Production of green gas takes place in rural areas with abundant supply of organic production resources, especially manure. It is in demonstration projects that green gas niche development is to be proven. In this paper the central question is how green gas demonstration projects manifest at the local level. By conducting a stakeholder analysis, we take a 'bottom-up' research approach, which helps us to identify organizational and institutional barriers key local stakeholders have in relation to green gas demonstration projects. We judge this necessary to further understanding in green gas niche development. The results of the analysis are used to advice policymakers about design and use of policy instruments which can help to solve these barriers.

Public Private Partnerships (PPP), especially those geared to exercise public legal powers ('Authoritative PPP'), are suggestive of tensions between private party involvement and public legitimacy. Hence, public legitimacy is analyzed primarily on the basis of work done by David Beetham, and complemented with Public Law legitimacy considerations concerning the exercise of legal powers and law on public organizations. The findings project that there is room to convincingly frame legitimate PPP involving public authority, but that the scope is restricted both in terms of legal constraints and of political sensitivity. As a result of this, truly wicked policy projects, which in theory stand most to gain by PPP, in practice seem to be considered less suited for Authoritative PPP (and probably more for Network PPP).

Abstract Background An important avenue toward a proper 'energy transition' through regional and local projects is for government to collaborate with private sector organizations. In the energy sector, these latter organizations are often already involved in private -private partnerships for collaboration toward energy transition. This article focuses on the energy governance question whether in fact some of these forms of collaboration actually are about public governance, as they effectively lean on government involvement. This seems to be the case in the construction of biogas infrastructures for the production and distribution of green gas. This contribution discusses, on the basis of the case 'Biogas grid Noordoost Fryslân', if such collaboration should in fact be labeled as public -private partnership (PPP). In the energy governance discourse, this issue is important because in the organization of PPP, the public interest of energy transition comes with specific normative safeguards, originating in public law. Methods This article provides a legal normative assessment on the basis of a specific case, the Biogas grid Noordoost Fryslân. The relevant empirical data on this case is gathered by a document study, including research reports, policy plans, project documents, and by interviews. Experts from the Dutch energy sector were face-to-face interviewed by a semi-structured questionnaire. The analysis uses the concept of PPP in relation to public authority. Results On the basis of a confrontation between the results from literature and from the results of empirical case study of a biogas grid in the Dutch region Noordoost Fryslân, we conclude that governmental influence can take a 'disguised' form by 'quasi' private organizations, with major normative consequences for the mode of sustainable energy governance. Conclusions Administrative law in particular poses (binding) criteria for safeguarding public interests, such as on transparency, relevant also to the mode of governance applied in the promotion of renewable energy. Public standards for governance of renewable energy projects have to be sufficiently safeguarded, as regards their form and content of steering, while at the same time retaining the advantages, which ensue from private party involvement within PPP.

Abstract
This article examines the effects of the structure of intermunicipal cooperatives (IMCs) on the perceived transaction costs and benefits of IMCs. Hypotheses based on a polycentric theory of regional governance are tested using data from Dutch municipalities. The findings are mixed. In line with polycentric theory, networks characterized by a multiplicity of territorial scales reduce IMC transaction costs. Contrary to polycentric theory, however, if IMCs are organized under a uniform legal regime, lower costs and higher benefits are reported. Structural factors that dominate the debate between polycentrism and monocentrism prove to be of limited importance. On the other hand, the results indicate support for the hypotheses that intermunicipal trust (as a cultural variable) contributes to perceptions of effective and efficient cooperation.

In this paper we study the existence of a democratic deficit in intermunicipal cooperation in the Netherlands and the effect of the structure of intermunicipal cooperation on democratic quality. We study both direct effects and indirect effects through the cultural climate of cooperation. Rival hypotheses from monocentric (Regional Reform) and polycentric (New Regionalist) theories are put to the test using data from all Dutch municipalities. Our findings are mixed. In terms of a democratic deficit, the general conclusion is that, as far as the representative institutions are concerned, there is little evidence of a systematic deficit. Citizens and organizations are however to a large degree dependent on their representatives to have any influence in IMCs. With regard to the effects of structural complexity, our findings are mixed. Both rival theories find only limited support in the data. For the legal regime, we find weak support for the monocentric position.

Abstract Background To achieve the ambition of the energy transition in the built environment, Dutch local governments try to motivate citizens to participate as communities in policy processes. There is a general expectation that such an interactive approach will foster a more rational policy output and will create stronger support from citizens towards policy outcomes. The emphasis put on this output-outcome effectiveness should not eclipse another major criterion of government policy- and decision-making and implementation: the legitimacy of political authority. Major building blocks of such legitimacy are the principles of liberal democracy and of the rule of law. The aim of this contribution is to identify safeguards for a legitimate exercise of political authority in interactive regional governance initiatives. Methods The empirical data about 'Sustainable Community Overijssel' is gathered by document study, including research reports, policy plans, and project documents, and by studying recent publications and news items. The analysis uses Beetham's multidimensional approach of legitimacy as point of departure. Results Beetham's legitimacy dimensions are elaborated upon from a liberal democracy viewpoint and a regulatory state pragmatic choice between various institutional environments. From this, legitimacy dimensions of 'shared values' and 'consent' emerge as most sensitive to interactive policy-making, necessitating proper safeguards, safeguards with relevance to the legitimacy of initiatives such as Sustainable Community Overijssel. Conclusions Legitimacy is never a given standard, it may be designed into structures and ambitions, but it will still need to be achieved by proper practice. This is certainly the case in projects concerning sustainability challenges of which effective solutions are by no means clear and readily deployable. The Overijssel case should be seen as one of many interesting cases towards evidence-based effective and legitimate policy practices.