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In this introduction we will first elaborate on why municipal employees and services is a relevant and revealing theme in urban history, and then go on to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of existing scholarship. With particular reference to the contributions to this book, we will consider the consolidation of civic expansionism from the mid-nineteenth century. Next, we will examine the complex relationships that emerged between the executive and administrative spheres of local government, the changing role of central government and employees' responses to the needs and directives of the often highly politicized municipal power-base. Finally, we will look to further research approaches to open out this important, yet under-rated aspect of urban history.

In this introduction we will first elaborate on why municipal employees and services is a relevant and revealing theme in urban history, and then go on to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of existing scholarship. With particular reference to the contributions to this book, we will consider the consolidation of civic expansionism from the mid-nineteenth century. Next, we will examine the complex relationships that emerged between the executive and administrative spheres of local government, the changing role of central government and employees' responses to the needs and directives of the often highly politicized municipal power-base. Finally, we will look to further research approaches to open out this important, yet under-rated aspect of urban history.

In this introduction we will first elaborate on why municipal employees and services is a relevant and revealing theme in urban history, and then go on to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of existing scholarship. With particular reference to the contributions to this book, we will consider the consolidation of civic expansionism from the mid-nineteenth century. Next, we will examine the complex relationships that emerged between the executive and administrative spheres of local government, the changing role of central government and employees' responses to the needs and directives of the often highly politicized municipal power-base. Finally, we will look to further research approaches to open out this important, yet under-rated aspect of urban history.

In this introduction we will first elaborate on why municipal employees and services is a relevant and revealing theme in urban history, and then go on to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of existing scholarship. With particular reference to the contributions to this book, we will consider the consolidation of civic expansionism from the mid-nineteenth century. Next, we will examine the complex relationships that emerged between the executive and administrative spheres of local government, the changing role of central government and employees' responses to the needs and directives of the often highly politicized municipal power-base. Finally, we will look to further research approaches to open out this important, yet under-rated aspect of urban history.

In this introduction we will first elaborate on why municipal employees and services is a relevant and revealing theme in urban history, and then go on to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of existing scholarship. With particular reference to the contributions to this book, we will consider the consolidation of civic expansionism from the mid-nineteenth century. Next, we will examine the complex relationships that emerged between the executive and administrative spheres of local government, the changing role of central government and employees' responses to the needs and directives of the often highly politicized municipal power-base. Finally, we will look to further research approaches to open out this important, yet under-rated aspect of urban history.

International audience ; Transnational perspective at work : municipal American travellers in Europe 1900-1940 The circulation of experiments, people, technical and administrative devices marks the contemporary municipal scene. Those who organised and took part to this work of connections shared the conviction that municipal achievements could be imported, transferred and adapted despite radical differences in local contexts or national legislative realities. All along the 20th century, exhibitions, congresses, specialised periodicals and networks or associations of cities adopted this attitude. Perhaps this principle was most intensely developed through the work of American municipal reformers who scoured Europe for ideas and suggestions. This new sort of reforming Grand Tour developed from the years 1880-1890 when more and more American considered that the Old and the New worlds had a common destiny. Those last decades of the 19th century welcomed a considerable growth of the North-Atlantic cultural and intellectual trade, that from the 1930s was completed by an hemispheric concern towards Latin and South America. This article makes use of existing scholarship to map the travelling interests of American municipal reformers between 1890 and 1914, before scrutinising the series of travels carried on by a cluster of professional societies of municipal administrators and technicians in the 1930s. This double endeavour helps to understand the possibilities, constraints and limits of the European municipal travel. For its American visitors, municipal Europe was simultaneously a rhetoric tool, an inspiration and a beachhead to spread the gospel of reformed municipal government towards the rest of the world. ; La sphère municipale contemporaine est riche de circulations d'expériences, de recettes, d'hommes, de solutions techniques ou réglementaires. Les acteurs de ces circulations partagèrent l'idée que les expériences en matière municipale sont transmissibles, traduisibles et transférables au delà des spécificités législatives ou des contextes locaux. Au 20e siècle, divers périodiques, expositions, ou encore les travaux d'une association internationale comme l'Union Internationale des Villes adoptent explicitement ce point de vue. Mais c'est peut-être dans le regard et la pratique des visiteurs états-uniens en Europe que ce principe transnational a été le plus intense à partir des années 1880-1890 où le constat d'un devenir commun l'emporte sur la méfiance vis à vis du vieux monde corrompu et non démocratique. Les dernières dé¬cen¬nies du 19e siècle voient grandir l'échange nord-atlantique, qui dans les années 1930 se combine, de la part des acteurs états-uniens, avec un investissement hémis¬phérique en direction du reste des Amériques. On se propose ici revenir sur l'économie générale de ces échanges entre 1890 et 1914 (thèmes, modalités, milieux), avant de scruter plus en détail une série de voyages initiés par les organisations professionnelles d'administrateurs et de techniciens municipaux états-uniens dans les années 1930, afin de mieux comprendre les possibilités, les contraintes et les limites du voyage municipal en Europe. L'Europe municipale fut pour ses spectateurs américains à la fois un outil rhé¬tori¬que, une source d'inspiration et un théâtre d'opérations. ?????

International audience ; Transnational perspective at work : municipal American travellers in Europe 1900-1940 The circulation of experiments, people, technical and administrative devices marks the contemporary municipal scene. Those who organised and took part to this work of connections shared the conviction that municipal achievements could be imported, transferred and adapted despite radical differences in local contexts or national legislative realities. All along the 20th century, exhibitions, congresses, specialised periodicals and networks or associations of cities adopted this attitude. Perhaps this principle was most intensely developed through the work of American municipal reformers who scoured Europe for ideas and suggestions. This new sort of reforming Grand Tour developed from the years 1880-1890 when more and more American considered that the Old and the New worlds had a common destiny. Those last decades of the 19th century welcomed a considerable growth of the North-Atlantic cultural and intellectual trade, that from the 1930s was completed by an hemispheric concern towards Latin and South America. This article makes use of existing scholarship to map the travelling interests of American municipal reformers between 1890 and 1914, before scrutinising the series of travels carried on by a cluster of professional societies of municipal administrators and technicians in the 1930s. This double endeavour helps to understand the possibilities, constraints and limits of the European municipal travel. For its American visitors, municipal Europe was simultaneously a rhetoric tool, an inspiration and a beachhead to spread the gospel of reformed municipal government towards the rest of the world. ; La sphère municipale contemporaine est riche de circulations d'expériences, de recettes, d'hommes, de solutions techniques ou réglementaires. Les acteurs de ces circulations partagèrent l'idée que les expériences en matière municipale sont transmissibles, traduisibles et transférables au delà des spécificités législatives ou des contextes locaux. Au 20e siècle, divers périodiques, expositions, ou encore les travaux d'une association internationale comme l'Union Internationale des Villes adoptent explicitement ce point de vue. Mais c'est peut-être dans le regard et la pratique des visiteurs états-uniens en Europe que ce principe transnational a été le plus intense à partir des années 1880-1890 où le constat d'un devenir commun l'emporte sur la méfiance vis à vis du vieux monde corrompu et non démocratique. Les dernières dé¬cen¬nies du 19e siècle voient grandir l'échange nord-atlantique, qui dans les années 1930 se combine, de la part des acteurs états-uniens, avec un investissement hémis¬phérique en direction du reste des Amériques. On se propose ici revenir sur l'économie générale de ces échanges entre 1890 et 1914 (thèmes, modalités, milieux), avant de scruter plus en détail une série de voyages initiés par les organisations professionnelles d'administrateurs et de techniciens municipaux états-uniens dans les années 1930, afin de mieux comprendre les possibilités, les contraintes et les limites du voyage municipal en Europe. L'Europe municipale fut pour ses spectateurs américains à la fois un outil rhé¬tori¬que, une source d'inspiration et un théâtre d'opérations. ?????

International audience ; Transnational perspective at work : municipal American travellers in Europe 1900-1940 The circulation of experiments, people, technical and administrative devices marks the contemporary municipal scene. Those who organised and took part to this work of connections shared the conviction that municipal achievements could be imported, transferred and adapted despite radical differences in local contexts or national legislative realities. All along the 20th century, exhibitions, congresses, specialised periodicals and networks or associations of cities adopted this attitude. Perhaps this principle was most intensely developed through the work of American municipal reformers who scoured Europe for ideas and suggestions. This new sort of reforming Grand Tour developed from the years 1880-1890 when more and more American considered that the Old and the New worlds had a common destiny. Those last decades of the 19th century welcomed a considerable growth of the North-Atlantic cultural and intellectual trade, that from the 1930s was completed by an hemispheric concern towards Latin and South America. This article makes use of existing scholarship to map the travelling interests of American municipal reformers between 1890 and 1914, before scrutinising the series of travels carried on by a cluster of professional societies of municipal administrators and technicians in the 1930s. This double endeavour helps to understand the possibilities, constraints and limits of the European municipal travel. For its American visitors, municipal Europe was simultaneously a rhetoric tool, an inspiration and a beachhead to spread the gospel of reformed municipal government towards the rest of the world. ; La sphère municipale contemporaine est riche de circulations d'expériences, de recettes, d'hommes, de solutions techniques ou réglementaires. Les acteurs de ces circulations partagèrent l'idée que les expériences en matière municipale sont transmissibles, traduisibles et transférables au delà des spécificités ...

International audience ; Transnational perspective at work : municipal American travellers in Europe 1900-1940 The circulation of experiments, people, technical and administrative devices marks the contemporary municipal scene. Those who organised and took part to this work of connections shared the conviction that municipal achievements could be imported, transferred and adapted despite radical differences in local contexts or national legislative realities. All along the 20th century, exhibitions, congresses, specialised periodicals and networks or associations of cities adopted this attitude. Perhaps this principle was most intensely developed through the work of American municipal reformers who scoured Europe for ideas and suggestions. This new sort of reforming Grand Tour developed from the years 1880-1890 when more and more American considered that the Old and the New worlds had a common destiny. Those last decades of the 19th century welcomed a considerable growth of the North-Atlantic cultural and intellectual trade, that from the 1930s was completed by an hemispheric concern towards Latin and South America. This article makes use of existing scholarship to map the travelling interests of American municipal reformers between 1890 and 1914, before scrutinising the series of travels carried on by a cluster of professional societies of municipal administrators and technicians in the 1930s. This double endeavour helps to understand the possibilities, constraints and limits of the European municipal travel. For its American visitors, municipal Europe was simultaneously a rhetoric tool, an inspiration and a beachhead to spread the gospel of reformed municipal government towards the rest of the world. ; La sphère municipale contemporaine est riche de circulations d'expériences, de recettes, d'hommes, de solutions techniques ou réglementaires. Les acteurs de ces circulations partagèrent l'idée que les expériences en matière municipale sont transmissibles, traduisibles et transférables au delà des spécificités législatives ou des contextes locaux. Au 20e siècle, divers périodiques, expositions, ou encore les travaux d'une association internationale comme l'Union Internationale des Villes adoptent explicitement ce point de vue. Mais c'est peut-être dans le regard et la pratique des visiteurs états-uniens en Europe que ce principe transnational a été le plus intense à partir des années 1880-1890 où le constat d'un devenir commun l'emporte sur la méfiance vis à vis du vieux monde corrompu et non démocratique. Les dernières dé¬cen¬nies du 19e siècle voient grandir l'échange nord-atlantique, qui dans les années 1930 se combine, de la part des acteurs états-uniens, avec un investissement hémis¬phérique en direction du reste des Amériques. On se propose ici revenir sur l'économie générale de ces échanges entre 1890 et 1914 (thèmes, modalités, milieux), avant de scruter plus en détail une série de voyages initiés par les organisations professionnelles d'administrateurs et de techniciens municipaux états-uniens dans les années 1930, afin de mieux comprendre les possibilités, les contraintes et les limites du voyage municipal en Europe. L'Europe municipale fut pour ses spectateurs américains à la fois un outil rhé¬tori¬que, une source d'inspiration et un théâtre d'opérations. ?????

International audience ; Transnational perspective at work : municipal American travellers in Europe 1900-1940 The circulation of experiments, people, technical and administrative devices marks the contemporary municipal scene. Those who organised and took part to this work of connections shared the conviction that municipal achievements could be imported, transferred and adapted despite radical differences in local contexts or national legislative realities. All along the 20th century, exhibitions, congresses, specialised periodicals and networks or associations of cities adopted this attitude. Perhaps this principle was most intensely developed through the work of American municipal reformers who scoured Europe for ideas and suggestions. This new sort of reforming Grand Tour developed from the years 1880-1890 when more and more American considered that the Old and the New worlds had a common destiny. Those last decades of the 19th century welcomed a considerable growth of the North-Atlantic cultural and intellectual trade, that from the 1930s was completed by an hemispheric concern towards Latin and South America. This article makes use of existing scholarship to map the travelling interests of American municipal reformers between 1890 and 1914, before scrutinising the series of travels carried on by a cluster of professional societies of municipal administrators and technicians in the 1930s. This double endeavour helps to understand the possibilities, constraints and limits of the European municipal travel. For its American visitors, municipal Europe was simultaneously a rhetoric tool, an inspiration and a beachhead to spread the gospel of reformed municipal government towards the rest of the world. ; La sphère municipale contemporaine est riche de circulations d'expériences, de recettes, d'hommes, de solutions techniques ou réglementaires. Les acteurs de ces circulations partagèrent l'idée que les expériences en matière municipale sont transmissibles, traduisibles et transférables au delà des spécificités législatives ou des contextes locaux. Au 20e siècle, divers périodiques, expositions, ou encore les travaux d'une association internationale comme l'Union Internationale des Villes adoptent explicitement ce point de vue. Mais c'est peut-être dans le regard et la pratique des visiteurs états-uniens en Europe que ce principe transnational a été le plus intense à partir des années 1880-1890 où le constat d'un devenir commun l'emporte sur la méfiance vis à vis du vieux monde corrompu et non démocratique. Les dernières dé¬cen¬nies du 19e siècle voient grandir l'échange nord-atlantique, qui dans les années 1930 se combine, de la part des acteurs états-uniens, avec un investissement hémis¬phérique en direction du reste des Amériques. On se propose ici revenir sur l'économie générale de ces échanges entre 1890 et 1914 (thèmes, modalités, milieux), avant de scruter plus en détail une série de voyages initiés par les organisations professionnelles d'administrateurs et de techniciens municipaux états-uniens dans les années 1930, afin de mieux comprendre les possibilités, les contraintes et les limites du voyage municipal en Europe. L'Europe municipale fut pour ses spectateurs américains à la fois un outil rhé¬tori¬que, une source d'inspiration et un théâtre d'opérations. ?????

Public Administration as a discipline and a field emerged in the USA in the inter war period with a strong support from the Rockefeller organizations, the Spelman Fund of New York being the main granting agency in the field. This emergence was closely connected to the European experience. This essay attempts to reconstruct the domestic and international settings in which this interchange took place, to pay attention to all those who played a large role in foundation work without being foundation officers, to trace the shifting roles of the European reference in the field of US public administration and to assess the impact of the European work in the field of government. Accordingly, Europe appears to be first a source rather than a target, and then a channel to the wider world rather than a scene of operation.

introduction au numéro spécial "Municipal Connections: Links, Transfers and Cooperation among European Cities in the 20th Century" ; International audience ; Globalisation, the buzzword of the late twentieth century, calls for the attention of historians. As others have already suggested, one way to contribute to the historicisation of the phenomena encapsulated in this idiom is to pay attention to connections over long periods. Connections between municipal governments and exchanges about the subject have both been neglected by historical scholarship for various reasons, but they can contribute to the history of the "construction of the universal". Indeed, the information systems of municipal connections – their vectors, actors and structures – have defined, intersected with, nourished or undergone a series of would-be universalist "transboundary formations". These formations are shifting combinations of values, collective actions, practices, rules, organisations and individuals, all of which are advanced as possible futures for mankind. By examining some of these discourses of 'social order' and "world order" and the way in which they combine with municipal connections, this article attempts to produce the "'municipal contribution" announced in its title.