Suchergebnisse

Six by-products are used as additives in adobe bricks to study the variability of mechanical properties by a three level design of experiments and to evaluate optima formulations. Corn plant, fescue, straw, and grounded olive stones are agricultural by-products; and rubber crumbs and polyurethane are wastes used as transport and appliances by-products. Results show that the three-level design of experiments defines properly the governing equations of flexural and compression strength, furthermore it shows the interaction between them. A maximum improvement of 89% and 26% of flexural strength in corn plant and fescue types, respectively, is achieved. ; The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Commission Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) under grant agreement No. PIRSES-GA-2013-610692 (INNOSTORAGE). Furthermore, the work is partially funded by the Spanish Government (ENE2011-28269-C03-02 and ENE2011-22722). The authors would like to thank the Catalan Government for the quality accreditation given to their research groups GREA (2014 SGR 123) and DIOPMA (2014 SGR 1543).

Buildings should be understood as a process that consumes energy in all their phases (design, construction, use and end-of-life) and, more specifically, the building envelope is clearly involved in all of them. For this reason, the International Energy Agency defines in its latest publication the improvement of building envelopes as one of the key points to reduce the energy consumption in buildings. In the present study, two sustainable construction systems based on rammed earth walls are adapted to modern requirements to be thermally tested and compared against three Mediterranean conventional systems under summer conditions. The experimentation was done by performing several experiments in free floating and controlled temperature conditions at real scale in five cubicle-shape buildings with inner dimensions 2.4 × 2.4 × 2.4 m. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate that more sustainable construction systems can be used instead of conventional ones, with higher embodied energy, and achieve similar thermal response. Results show that the reduction of rammed earth wall thickness strongly penalizes its thermal behavior. However, similar thermal response than conventional systems is reached when 6 cm of wooden insulation panels are added in the outer face of the cubicle-shape building. ; The work is partially funded by the Spanish government (ULLE10-4E-1305 and ENE2015-64117-C5-1-R). The authors would like to thank the Catalan Government for the quality accreditation given to their research group GREA-UdL (2014 SGR 123) and the city hall of Puigverd de Lleida. This project has received funding from the European Commission Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) under Grant agreement N° PIRSES-GA-2013-610692 (INNOSTORAGE) and from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 657466 (INPATH-TES). Alvaro de Gracia would like to thank Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad de España for Grant Juan de la Cierva, FJCI-2014-19940.

La historiografía de los últimos 20 años ha investigado la crisis de Ancien Regime en el País Vasco profundizando en el conocimiento de las estructuras económicas y los fundamentos demográficos. Conocemos mejor los aspectos relacionados con la quiebra de las bases económicas tradicionales, sin embargo todavía subyace la idea de correspondencia mecánica entre estructura económica y una determinada actitud política. La investigación que estamos concluyendo analiza las elecciones legislativas, la génesis de las ideologías y formaciones políticas, las trayectorias de vida de cada uno de los parlamentarios así como su intervención política, en un período de transición como es la crisis final del Antiguo Régimen y en un territorio con unas estructuras jurídico-políticas con órganos de gobierno propios a escala provincial, en el marco de unión que articuló la monarquía española. Este artículo trata de exponer de forma sintética algunas de las reflexiones que ha generado un primer análisis de la acción política que desarrollaron en el Parlamento español los diputados y senadores elegidos en los distritos vascos. ; Peer reviewed

The building envelope has high potential to reduce the energy consumption of buildings according to the International Energy Agency (IEA) because it is involved along all the building process: design, construction, use, and end-of-life. The present study compares the thermal behavior of seven different building prototypes tested under Mediterranean climate: two of them were built with sustainable earth-based construction systems and the other five, with conventional brick construction systems. The tested earth-based construction systems consist of rammed earth walls and wooden green roofs, which have been adapted to contemporary requirements by reducing their thickness. In order to balance the thermal response, wooden insulation panels were placed in one of the earth prototypes. All building prototypes have the same inner dimensions and orientation, and they are fully monitored to register inner temperature and humidity, surface walls temperatures and temperatures inside walls. Furthermore, all building prototypes are equipped with a heat pump and an electricity meter to measure the electrical energy consumed to maintain a certain level of comfort. The experimentation was performed along a whole year by carrying out several experiments in free floating and controlled temperature conditions. This study aims at demonstrating that sustainable construction systems can behave similarly or even better than conventional ones under summer and winter conditions. Results show that thermal behavior is strongly penalized when rammed earth wall thickness is reduced. However, the addition of 6 cm of wooden insulation panels in the outer surface of the building prototype successfully improves the thermal response. ; This project has received funding from the European Commission Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) under Grant agreement Nº PIRSES-GA-2013-610692 (INNOSTORAGE), from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 657466 (INPATH-TES) and the Spanish government (ULLE10-4E-1305, ENE2015-64117-C5-1-R (MINECO/FEDER) and ENE2015-64117-C5-3-R (MINECO/FEDER)). The authors would like to thank the Catalan Government for the quality accreditation given to their research group GREA-UdL (2014 SGR 123) and the city hall of Puigverd de Lleida. GREA is certified agent TECNIO in the category of technology developers from the Government of Catalonia. Álvaro de Gracia would like to thank Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad de España for Grant Juan de la Cierva, FJCI-2014- 19940.

In this paper PCM is added to three types of stabilized rammed. Mechanical and thermal characterization is carried out. To do so, the compressive strength is optimized and the final compositions obtained are used to formulate the materials which will be thermally characterized. The optimization process is done with a design of experiments (DoE) and a variance analysis (ANOVA). Finally, LCA is used to evaluate the environmental impact during the manufacturing phase, due to the addition of stabilizers and PCM in the rammed earth. ; The work is partially funded by the Spanish government (ENE2008-06687-C02-01/CON, ENE2011- 28269-C03-01 and ENE2011-28269-C03-02) and the European Union (COST Action TU0802). The authors would like to thank the Catalan Government for the quality accreditation given to their research group GREA (2009 SGR 534) and research group DIOPMA (2009 SGR 645). Lídia Rincón would like to thank the University of Lleida for her research fellowship.

Energy planning is fundamental for energy planners to accurately plan for the future and to utilize the sustainable and renewable energy resources to a larger extent. But how well are we able to project the future? In this paper, past projections of global and regional energy consumption are compared to real data. The conclusions found that when comparing energy consumption projections with real registered data projections in 1977 substantially overestimated energy demand in the future, while later projections in the 80 s and 90 s were closer to reality, slightly underestimating real growth in demand. Although projections made in these two decades for total demand were typically slightly underestimated, per capita projections were still overestimating real trends. Considering the building sector, residential and commercial, energy consumption was underestimated in WEO 1982 and WEO 1994; and again, when per capita values are considered, higher values than reality were projected. ; The work is partially funded by the Spanish government (ENE2015-64117-C5-1-R (MINECO/FEDER)). The authors would like to thank the Catalan Government for the quality accreditation given to their research group GREA (2014 SGR 123) and research group DIOPMA (2014 SGR 1543). GREA and DIOPMA are certified agents TECNIO in the category of technology developers from the Government of Catalonia. Dr. Camila Barreneche would like to thank Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad de España for Grant Juan de la Cierva, FJCI-2014-22886.

This paper aims to complete and complement the information available on the past trends of thermal energy consumption in residential buildings and its drivers for Europe, as a continent and for the different countries. This paper follows the drivers identified in a previous one for the heating and cooling energy consumption, decomposing this energy demand into key drivers based on a Kaya identity approach: number of households, persons per household, floor space per capita and specific energy consumption for residential heating and cooling. Results show that all drivers did follow a consistent trend at global, regional and country level during the studied period of time, but the heating and cooling energy consumption did not follow the same trend if it was considered at global, regional or country level, showing that the energy consumption is very much influenced by all its drivers and does not follow the same trend as the specific energy consumption. Moreover, similar trends for each indicator can be found when evaluated at country or regional level, therefore as expected when aggregating data trends can be seen but details and particularities (both for the different countries and for the different studied years) are lost. ; The work is partially funded by the Spanish government (ENE2015-64117-C5-1-R (MINECO/FEDER)). The authors would like to thank the Catalan Government for the quality accreditation given to their research group GREA (2014 SGR 123) and research group DIOPMA (2014 SGR 1543). Dr. Camila Barreneche would like to thank Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad de España for Grant Juan de la Cierva, FJCI-2014-22886.

The purpose of this paper is to provide a source of information on thermal energy use in buildings, its drivers, and their past, present and future trends on a global and regional basis. Energy use in buildings forms a large part of global and regional energy demand. The importance of heating and cooling in total building energy use is very diverse with this share varying between 18% and 73%. Biomass is still far the dominant fuel when a global picture is considered; the role of electricity is substantially growing, and the direct use of coal is disappearing from this sector, largely replaced by electricity and natural gas in the most developed regions. This paper identifies the different drivers of heating and cooling energy demand, and decomposes this energy demand into key drivers based on a Kaya identity approach: number of households, persons per household, floor space per capita and specific energy consumption for residential heating and cooling; and GDP, floor space per GDP, and specific energy consumption for commercial buildings. This paper also reviews the trends in the development of these drivers for the present, future – and for which data were available, for the past – in 11 world regions as well as globally. Results show that in a business-as-usual scenario, total residential heating and cooling energy use is expected to more or less stagnate, or slightly decrease, in the developed parts of the world. In contrast, commercial heating and cooling energy use will grow in each world region. Finally, the results show that per capita total final residential building energy use has been stagnating in the vast majority of world regions for the past three decades, despite the very significant increases in energy service levels in each of these regions. ; The work is partially funded by the Spanish Government (ENE2011–28269-C03-02 and ENE2011-13511-E). The authors would like to thank the Catalan Government for the quality accreditation given to their research group GREA (2014 SGR 123) and research group DIOPMA (2014 SGR 1543)

Having carried out a micro-biographical analysis, using primary sources, of the 610 parliamentarians who represented the Basque districts between 1808 and 1939 in successive biographical dictionaries, we now undertake a prosopographical analysis of 44 parliamentarians who represented the districts of the Basque Country in the Spanish II Republic (1931-1939). Aspects covered include: geographical origin, age, life expectancy, educational and professional profile, cultural level and sociability, continuity in political activity between the Monarchy and the Republic. The work offers novel comparative conclusions. ; Realizado un análisis microbiográfico, con fuentes primarias, de los 610 parlamentarios que representaron a los distritos vascos entre 1808 y 1939 en sucesivos diccionarios biográficos, abordamos el análisis prosopográfico de los 44 parlamentarios que representaron a los distritos de Vasconia en la II República española (1931-1939): origen geográfico, edad, esperanza de vida, perfil educativo y profesional, nivel cultural y sociabilidad, continuidad en la actividad política entre la Monarquía y la República. El trabajo ofrece conclusiones comparativas novedosas.

Rammed earth is considered a very sustainable construction system due to its low embodied energy, long service life and high recyclability. However, authors found that there is a lack of experimental results at real scale regarding rammed earth thermal behaviour. For this reason, this paper is first focused on the characterization of two different types of earth in order to check the suitability of being used in rammed earth walls. After the characterization, two experimental cubicle-shape buildings were built in Barcelona and Puigverd de Lleida (Spain) in order to test the thermal behaviour of their walls in two different climatic conditions. Temperature profiles inside walls have been monitored using thermocouples and temperature profile of southern walls was analysed in free floating conditions during summer and winter periods of 2013. Results show that thermal amplitude from outside to inside temperatures are decreased by rammed earth walls, achieving constant temperatures in inner surface of southern walls. ; The work was partially funded by the Spanish government (ENE2015-64117-C5-1-R (MINECO/FEDER)), in collaboration with the City Hall of Puigverd de Lleida. The authors would like to thank the Catalan Government for the quality accreditation given to their research group (2014 SGR 123). This project has received funding from the European Commission Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) under Grant agreement Nº PIRSES-GA-2013-610692 (INNOSTORAGE) and from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 657466 (INPATH-TES). Barcelona cubicle has been conducted under the direction of the company Casa S-Low, with the collaboration of Luis Allepuz y Cristian Poza in their final degree project at EPSEB (UPC).

Phase change materials are a promising strategy to reduce energy consumption in a wide range of applications including the building sector. Many studies have been done to evaluate the impact of PCM on thermal properties of building materials, however there exists little information on the influence of PCM on other properties of the support materials. This knowledge is necessary to determine the feasibility to apply and use building materials containing PCM. In this paper, the effect of the addition of different percentages of microencapsulated phase change material on the properties of two commercial single layer mortars has been studied. Physical and thermal properties as well as fire reaction have been evaluated. ; The work is partially funded by the Spanish Government(ENE2011-28269-C03-02 and MAT2011-26410). The authorswould like to thank the Catalan Government for the quality accredi-tation given to their research group GREA (2014 SGR 123), researchgroup DIOPMA (2014 SGR 1543) and research group GICITED (2014SGR 1298).The work leading to this invention has received fundingfrom the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme(FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement no. PIRSES-GA-2013-610692 (INNOSTORAGE)

Since appliances consume a large fraction of the residential final energy consumption, analysing the impact and trends in penetration and ownership of appliances are targets of interest to researchers, companies and policy makers. However, there is a lack of published data based on the study of appliance penetration or ownership comparing different countries trends and assessing different appliances families. The data is usually found in percentages related to energy use or other factors, or in national directive documents written in local languages. The main aim of this paper is to analyse the trends in appliances penetration and/or ownership in the residential buildings sector providing access to the data of ten countries representing different world areas, and 20 appliances which fell into three distinct appliance categories (white goods, brown goods and small appliances), in a comparable framework. Penetration data is given for Australia, Austria, Denmark, France, Spain, UK, and USA; and ownership data for Australia, China, Hungary, Japan and USA. ; The work is partially funded by the Spanish government (ENE2015-64117-C5-1-R). The authors would like to thank the Catalan Government for the quality accreditation given to their research group GREA and DIOPMA (2014 SGR 123 and 2014 SGR 1543, respectively). Dr. Camila Barreneche would like to thank Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad de España for grant Juan de la Cierva, FJCI-2014–22886.

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) the primary energy production was increased by 49% and CO2 emissions by 43% over the past 20 years. Furthermore, 30 - 40% of total energy consumption in developed countries comes from the private sector (housing and offices). Thermal energy storage (TES) is proposed as one way to improve the gap between energy consumption and energy supply. TES systems can store energy as sensible heat, latent heat or chemical reaction. Phase change materials (PCM) are extensively studied materials for thermal energy storage as latent heat because these materials have high phase change enthalpy in a wide variety of phase change temperature. Nowadays it is quite difficult to have all the reported information about PCM properties, not only the thermophysical ones but other relevant properties, even though there are different compilations. CES Selector is software used in material selection, besides being a materials database it permits to include new materials introducing their properties, as well as to classify them in several groups, to plot the data and combine graphs production with the material selection under the desired criteria. More than 300 substances used as PCM and reported in the literature were introduced in a new database created using CES Selector. Thermophysical properties as melting temperature (°C) and melting enthalpy (kJ·kg-1) have been plotted and PCM selections under different criteria were carried out. This database can be completed in the future with other relevant properties either than thermal such as chemical properties (durability in different media etc), reported density or viscosity at a given temperature or even cost of each material. Analyzing these plots it is observed that some PCM are represented occupying a wide range of a given thermophysical property. This is the case of CaCl2·6H2O: data came from 7 sources and the occupied area in the plot is the highest one from all the PCM reported. On the other hand, some other PCM are represented with smaller dots associated with a lower dispersion in the property values and this size may possibly be attributed to different reasons: scarce sources for experimental data or low dispersion among several experimental reported values. These results emphasize that there is a lack of standardization for the measurement of the PCM thermophysical properties. ; The work is partially funded by the Spanish government (ENE2011-28269-C03-02) and the European Union (NMP4-SL-2010-260056). The authors would like to thank the Catalan Government for the quality accreditation given their research group GREA (2009 SGR 534) and research group DIOPMA (2009 SGR 645).

Gypsum has two important states (fresh and hardened states), and the addition of phase change materials (PCM) can vary the properties of the material. Many authors have extensively studied properties in the hardened state; however, the variation of fresh state properties due to the addition of Micronalr DS 5001 X PCM into gypsum has been the object of few investigations. Properties in fresh state define the workability, setting time, adherence and shrinkage, and, therefore the possibility of implementing the material in building walls. The aim of the study is to analyze, compare and evaluate the variability of fresh state properties after the inclusion of 10% PCM. PCM are added into a common gypsum matrix by three different methods: adding microencapsulated PCM, making a suspension of PCM/water, and incorporating PCM through a vacuum impregnation method. Results demonstrate that the inclusion of PCM change completely the water required by the gypsum to achieve good workability, especially the formulation containing Micronalr DS 5001 X: the water required is higher, the retraction is lower (50% less) due to the organic nature of the PCM with high elasticity and, the adherence is reduced (up to 45%) due to the difference between the porosity of the different surfaces as well as the surface tension difference. ; The work is partially funded by the Spanish government (ENE2011-28269-C03-02 and MAT2011-26410). The authors would like to thank the Catalan Government for the quality accreditation given to their research group GREA-UdL (2014 SGR 123) and research group DIOPMA-UB (2014 SGR 1543) and GICITED-UPC (2014 SGR 1298). In addition, the research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n˝ PIRSES-GA-2013-610692 (INNOSTORAGE).

The building sector is one of the highest energy consumers representing around 30% of total energy use. One of the recommendations of the IEA (International Energy Agency) to reduce energy consumption in buildings is to enhance the thermal performance of building envelopes. In the present study, PCM (Phase Change Material) gypsum materials have been manufactured using three different PCM inclusion methods and a thin layer of gypsum without PCM is added as external layer with the aim of improving the fire reaction behaviour. By performing a detailed physical, mechanical and thermal characterization, the suitability of the materials to be implemented in the building envelope as inner coating is demonstrated. Results show that also the thermal properties are improved in the three cases by the addition of PCM. Moreover, the negative effect of adding paraffin wax PCM into gypsum against flame can be easily reduced by the addition of a thin gypsum layer, which is a low tech and cheap solution without extra environmental impact. ; The work is partially funded by the Spanish government (ENE2015-64117-C5-1-R, ENE2015-64117-C5-2-R, MAT2011-26410 and BIA2014-52688-R). The authors would like to thank the Catalan Government for the quality accreditation given to their research group GREA - UdL (2014 SGR 123) and research group DIOPMA - UB (2014 SGR 1543) and GICITED − UPC (2014 SGR 1298). In addition, this project has received funding from the European Commission Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013) under Grant agreement N° PIRSES-GA-2013-610692 (INNOSTORAGE) and from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 657466 (INPATH-TES).