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Political scientists have contributed to the world of electoral systems as scientists and as engineers. Taking stock of recent scientific research, we show that context modifies the effects of electoral rules on political outcomes in specific and systematic ways. We explore how electoral rules shape the inclusion of women and minorities, the depth and nature of political competition, and patterns of redistribution and regulation, and we consider institutional innovations that could promote political equality. Finally, we describe the diverse ways that political scientists produce an impact on the world by sharing and applying their knowledge of the consequences of electoral rules and global trends in reform.

Este artículo revisa y evalúa críticamente los argumentos de Linz acerca de los riesgos del presidencialismo. Se coincide en gran medida con Linz en que el presidencialismo tal como se ejerce de modo general resulta menos adecuado que el parlamentarismo para sostener gobiernos democráticos. Sin embargo, se cuestiona aquí varios aspectos de su argumento. ; This article critically reviews and evaluates Linz´s arguments about the risks of presidentialism. According to Linz, presidentialism as it is practiced in general is less suitable than parliamentarism to sustain democratic governments However, several aspects of his argument are questioned.

The Colombian case offers a rare opportunity to observe effects of electoral reform where districting remains constant. Only the formula changed, from extremely 'personalized' (seats allocated solely on candidate votes) to 'listized': seats are allocated to party lists, which may be either open or closed. Electoral reform has effects on both the inter-party dimension (the number of parties competing) and the intra-party dimension (the extent of competition within parties). Consistent with theoretical expectations, the inter-party dimension features an increased number of parties in the low-magnitude districts and a decrease in the high-magnitude districts. On the intra-party dimension, the impact 'mirrors' the inter-party: less competition in smaller districts, yet more in larger districts. [Copyright Elsevier Ltd.]

The Colombian case offers a rare opportunity to observe effects of electoral reform where districting remains constant. Only the formula changed, from extremely 'personalized' (seats allocated solely on candidate votes) to 'listized': seats are allocated to party lists, which may be either open or closed. Electoral reform has effects on both the inter-party dimension (the number of parties competing) and the intra-party dimension (the extent of competition within parties). Consistent with theoretical expectations, the inter-party dimension features an increased number of parties in the low-magnitude districts and a decrease in the high-magnitude districts. On the intra-party dimension, the impact 'mirrors' the inter-party: less competition in smaller districts, yet more in larger districts. [Copyright Elsevier Ltd.]