Objective This article is a response to Wickens et al.'s (2019) critique of Jamieson and Skraaning (2019). Background Wickens et al. (2019) offer a five-point critique of Jamieson and Skraaning (2019) that they claim tempers the strength of our conclusions. Approach We first correct a misrepresentation in the critique and then respond to each of the criticisms. Results We preserve the strength of our skeptical conclusions about the applicability of the lumberjack model to complex work settings. Applications We continue to caution system designers about the lack of evidence supporting the lumberjack model in the context of complex work systems.
Objective Test the automation transparency design principle using a full-scope nuclear power plant simulator. Background Automation transparency is a long-held human factors design principle espousing that the responsibilities, capabilities, goals, activities, and/or effects of automation should be directly observable in the human–system interface. The anticipated benefits of transparency include more effective reliance, more appropriate trust, better understanding, and greater user satisfaction. Transparency has enjoyed a recent upsurge in use in the context of human interaction with agent-oriented automation. Method Three full-scope nuclear power plant simulator studies were conducted with licensed operating crews. In the first two experiments, transparency was implemented for interlocks, controllers, limitations, protections, and automatic programs that operate at the local component level of the plant. In the third experiment, procedure automation assumed control of plant operations and was represented in dedicated agent displays. Results Results from Experiments 1 and 2 appear to validate the human performance benefits of automation transparency for automation at the component level. However, Experiment 3 failed to replicate these findings for automation that assumed control for executing procedural actions. Conclusion Automation transparency appears to yield expected benefits for component-level automation, but caution is warranted in generalizing the design principle to agent-oriented automation. Application The automation transparency design principle may offer a powerful means of compensating for the detrimental impacts of hidden automation influence at the component level of complex systems. However, system developers should exercise caution in assuming that the principle extends to agent-oriented automation.
Objective The objective of this study was to test the predictions of the routine-failure trade-off (or lumberjack) model in a full-scope simulator study with expert operators performing realistic control tasks. Background A meta-study of degree of automation (DOA) studies concluded that DOA predicts task performance under both routine and automation failure conditions, workload, and situation awareness. Empirical support for this conclusion appears to be weak for complex work situations. Method A full-scope nuclear power plant simulator experiment was conducted in which licensed operating crews completed realistic procedure execution tasks. Dependent measures selected from the lumberjack model were collected and analyzed for systematic effects. Results Situation awareness increased with increasing DOA, which contradicts the lumberjack model. Anticipated workload and failure task performance effects were not observed. Conclusion The experimental results add further evidence challenging the applicability of the lumberjack model to complex work situations. Application Practitioners should use caution when extending the predictions of the lumberjack model based on data from simple work situations to complex work situations. Researchers should invest more resources in testing the predictive power of the lumberjack model in complex work situations.
