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The Comprehensive Food Consumption Database was developed in 2010 and is a source of information on food consumption across the European Union. Information on the consumption of food supplements, reported in units (i.e. tablets, capsules, drops etc.) is also included. The occurrence of different hazards (e.g. chemical contaminants and food additives) in food supplements makes it extremely important to have food supplements quantified in grams, which has been reported as very difficult task by Member States. For this reason, EFSA decided to analyse the information available in the Comprehensive database on the consumption of food supplements and create a database from which standard weights per type of supplements were extracted. Both FoodEx2 classification and unit weight were checked and adjusted for each food supplement record. Food supplements were divided based on their main ingredient and FoodEx2 classification code, and then further divided on the type of unit. The average weight was calculated for each group. The unit weights suggested in this document represent a step-forward into the harmonisation and standardisation of the methodologies used in EFSA. Harmonising the use of the unit weight of the food supplements, instead of a case-by-case approach, is a step to improve the quality and validity of EFSA's scientific outputs. ; EU; docx; data.collection@efsa.europa.eu

This article analyses the transition from bimetallism to the gold standard in Portugal. The research has emphasised that the high percentage of gold coins in circulation and the network externalities were the main reasons for the de jure adoption of the gold standard in 1854. However, it has not provided a justification for either the appreciation of gold in the Portuguese market in 1847 which was contrary to the international trend or the reasons behind the decision to continue to circulate British gold sovereigns in 1851 when all other foreign coins were withdrawn. We argue that the political pressure applied by groups with ownership of British gold coins explains the transition from bimetallism to the gold standard. ; info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

No presente trabalho foram analisados os fluxos da mão-de-obra residente na região Norte (NUTS II) entre os estados considerados relevantes do mercado de trabalho, no período de 1998 a 2000. Para o efeito, utilizou-se a base de micro-dados do Inquérito ao Emprego realizado pelo INE, de periodicidade trimestral. A análise incidiu sobre as probabilidades de transição ocorridas entre os estados, estimadas no âmbito da metodologia das Cadeias de Markov em tempo discreto, para diferentes segmentos populacionais, sendo que os estados considerados correspondem a situações diversas dos indivíduos perante a actividade económica (emprego, desemprego, inactividade e suas desagregações).

Using data from Phase II-III of the European Union Emission Trading Scheme, we characterize CO2 prices interrelation with energy prices (gas, electricity and coal), carbon allowances substitute prices and with economic activity index. We estimate a vector autoregressive model and the responses of CO2 prices to impulses in other variables, observing duration and direction of the impact. Our main findings include significant positive impact of returns in CO2 of peak electricity, gas, and economy index, and CO2 returns itself. The impact is visible during ten days in case of an electricity innovation, and during one day in case of gas. A shock in economy index prices has 2 days impact, and finally a substitute good for carbon licences in the European market does not have a significant impact. ; COMPETE, QREN, FEDER, Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia ...

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to study how budgetary constraints can have ethical implications on patient treatment options. Design/methodology/approach – By applying a qualitative methodological approach (interviews) and participant observation, this paper studies the behaviour of surgeons in scenarios of financial restriction. Findings – The empirical findings show that despite the conflict between the economy and the leges artis, surgeons maintain the ethical and deontological principles of their profession with fair rules of orientation. Practical implications – The importance of this study can be realised by its continuity. One of the authors is already implicated on a wider research to investigate the influence of the economic scarcity of resources on general surgeons' ethical behaviours. Social implications – This paper is a contribution to understanding the rules that restrain the activities of surgeons. Politicians sometimes do not have a full understanding of the pressures that the medical profession faces in their day-to-day activities. Currently, with the addition of problems relate to COVID-19, politicians and populations seem to better understand the importance of the Serviço Nacional de Saúde (SNS), This paper hopes that this understanding will be not only a conjectural moment. Originality/value – In conjunction with the economic recession that began in the first decade of this century, health institutions have long faced budgetary constraints that condition their material and human resources and correspondingly shape the scope of health professional activities. Until now, it has not been studied the impact of economic crises on the ethical behaviour of Portuguese surgeons. Therefore, this research is a first step and a useful contribution to understanding the rules that can restrain (or not) the ethical conduct of these health professionals. ; info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

In the early decades of the contemporary world economy, Portugal had to perform twice difficult stabilization processes: during the 1890s as a consequence of the collapse of external and public debt payments, and during the 1920s in the wake of the First World War. This paper will analyse these Portuguese situations: the 1890s stabilization based on leaving the gold standard monetary system and on partial default of the external public debt payments led to a period of economic stagnation, which lasted until the First World War, in spite of the good international background provided by the so called belle époque; the 1920s stabilization based on a very tough fiscal adjustment opened the way to an interwar period of slight growth , in spite of the unfavourable international background provided by the problems of the 1920s and the Great Depression during the 1930s (although it was not enough to sustain the liberal republican regime, which was replaced by a military dictatorship, and later an authoritarian right-wing regime).

Abstract: Sexual abuse is a phenomenon present in all social classes and cultures and has become more relevant in recent decades. Victims suffer traumatic consequences in the short and long terms and one of the possible approaches to be used in treatment is Psychodrama. This study presents an overview of Psychodrama and the Role Reversal technique, as well as its effectiveness, especially in the treatment of trauma, in particular, trauma resulting from sexual abuse. For this study, we searched the main international databases. We have discovered that psychodrama can serve as a highly effective intervention model for individuals who have experienced sexual abuse. However, our primary finding emphasizes the necessity for additional research regarding the efficacy of Psychodrama and its Role-reversal technique specifically for victims of sexual abuse.

In this paper, we assess the production, supply, and circulation of national gold coins in Brazil in the eighteenth century. New estimates have been provided of the volume of production of these gold coins at Mints of Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, and Minas Gerais. Comparing the values of this coinage with remittances to Lisbon, the first half of the eighteenth century reveals a more stable conjuncture than the second half. This latter period shows fluctuations that were expressed in the faster growth of the supply, despite the fall that took place in the production-coinage of gold. Our conclusions question the historiographical theses about the shortage of currency in Brazil throughout the Eighteenth Century. The growth of the economy from the last quarter of the Century onwards implied an increase in the demand for money, which may explain the increase in the supply of national gold coins.

Having stated the approach, this introduction proceeds with the outline of the paper, provides a quantitative overview of the period 1555-1910 (section 1.2) and explains the role of the Cortes in fiscal and monetary developments since the XIV century (section 1.3). Section 2.1 emphasises the role of domain revenues. Section 3.3 uses the structure of state revenue to reveal how the entrepreneurial domain state undermined the contractual basis of taxation, hindering reform and delaying economic development in the late XVIII century. The three following sections correspond roughly to the XVII, XVIII and XIX centuries. Guiding the analysis in the different subsections are changes in the monetary or fiscal regime, largely a reflection of the pressure coming from foreign invasions, let alone successive wars or revolutions at home. In section 2, the pressure helps understand the build-up against the end of union with Spain and the fiscal and monetary effects of the restoration war, respectively the early introduction of an income tax in 1641 (section 2.2) and successive currency debasements until 1688 (section 2.3). Section 3 presents monetary and fiscal developments following the discoveries of gold in Brazil, beginning with a characterisation of the bimetallic monetary regime which preserved currency convertibility and stability until 1797 (section 3.1). The drop in tax revenues from foreign and colonial trade and the risks of further involvement in the Seven Years war led to a major reform of fiscal institutions in 1761 (section 3.2). The impact of Napoleonic wars ( 1796-1808) on the tax system was most apparent in the efforts to overcome the tax immunities enjoyed by nobility and clergy. The tax debate achieved almost the same salience as it did in pre-Revolutionary France. But it did not bring about an efficient, equitable and simple tax system. Instead, mounting budget deficits resulted in the issuance of public internal debt. The transition to constitutional rule in 1820 was fraught with financial instability, including the first experience with inconvertibility followed by the transfer of the crown to Brazil and currency devaluation. After the Brazilian declaration of independence in 1822, social unrest continued and led to a civil war (section 4.1). The redefinition of property rights and state functions is at the core of the political debates and actions attempting to build up a liberal state. Nevertheless, the establishment of representative institutions did not provide a new legitimacy for taxation. On the contrary, the liberal revolution was associated with the loss of social confidence and financial reputation, making the coexistence of political and financial freedom difficult, to the point that a major tax reform was introduced during civil war (sections 4.2 and 4.3). Up to the 1850s, many financial schemes designed to raise government revenue were tried, including debt issue, tax reform, forced debt, forced donations from the mercantile community, property confiscation and privatisation of state property. Eventually, there was a peaceful change in economic regime, involving compromises that softened political conflicts and maintained political and financial freedom for forty years. Yet systematic resort to deferred taxation via external borrowing narrowed the domestic tax base and made the financing of public infrastructures unsustainable. Domestic political instability returned and the Baring crisis of 1891 was sufficient to force Portugal off the gold standard, keeping the real and then the escudo inconvertible for the next hundred years (section 4.4). Section 5 concludes, stressing how forgetting the inheritance of the real may hurt Portugal's prospects in the eurozone. ; info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

The inheritance of the real (the current y of the Kingdom of Portugal. from 1415 to 1910) on national fiscal and monetary institutions is presented as a response to the challenge of foreign invasions and of their aftermath. The Portuguese crown had to preserve national sovereignty over borders defined in the XIII century in the face of external military threats from neighboring states. The social contract enforced by the crown until the early XX century relied on the ability to obtain increasingly expensive warfare. The pressure to raise revenue became a motive for fiscal change since medieval times, as war provided social legitimacy for tax reform or currency depreciation. Tax reform involved the creation of new taxes (the sisa and the deeima) with a comprehensive base, well before they were acknowledged to be part of a modem fiscal system. New methods of taxation, including the incidence of the decima on interest income, profits and even wages in order to improve the efficiency of the fiscal system were also introduced and the immunities enjoyed by the nobility and by the church were reduced. In spite of those modem features, for most of the period state finance was primarily based on domain revenues, coming from monopolies established on trade and other colonial resources. One of them, gold, was also used as money and powerfully affected the link between war and taxes. In particular, the amount and continuity of gold inflows allowed taxation to fall and remain low throughout the 1700s. The high share of customs in tax revenues and the concentration of other taxes (like the excise) in Lisbon were other peculiar attributes of the system. The fiscal collapse of the early 1800s shows how sensitive to fluctuations in foreign trade both domainial revenues and customs duties were. The importance of domainial revenues may also explain why institutional reforms did not develop in XVIII century Portugal as early as might be expected. The crown was unable to extend the modern features of its financial system and to resort to higher levels of consolidated public debt, the only way to deal with extraordinary expenditures. Wealth-holders did not support the modernization of state finance through the creation of a bank responsible for managing public debt and issuing convertible paper money. Perhaps the government's commitment to upholding property rights was not credible enough. The increase in military expenditures was followed by the fall in colonial commerce due to the loss of Brazil. Either one of the shocks would have been sufficient to bring about a large budget deficit. The resort to inconvertible monetary creation in 1797 was responsible for a period of raging inflation lasting until the 1820s. Moreover, it engendered problems in monetary circulation up to the 1850s. Money creation was only disciplined with the reform of the monetary system and the adhesion to the gold standard in 1854. Compared with the previous period of monetary and financial instability, the almost forty years that elapsed until the declaration of inconvertibility in 1891 allowed living standards to catch up with the European average. The resort to foreign public debt as a way to finance short-term public deficit was based on the assamption that in the long term the increase in tax revenues would balance the deficit. The constitutional agreement that pacified the country in 1852 and the globalisation in the capital markets associated with the heyday of the classical gold standard also enabled this experience of convergence. Outside the gold standard, Portugal endured renewed financial and political difficulties. In 1910, a revolution created a republic and a new inconvertible currency. If, for the monarchy, convertibility had been the rule rather than the exception, the pressure of war remained and so did the difficulties in tax administration. Indeed the resilience of the latter may be the only acknowledged inheritance of the real. ; N/A

This paper provides a general view of the evolution of banking in the Portuguese Colonial Empire between the founding of the first Portuguese colonial bank in 1864 and the independence of most Portuguese colonies in 1975. The text summarizes the legal background, presents the banks existing during that period, examines their businesses and discusses their contribution to the economic evolution of the territories under consideration. As the paper's main conclusions, it may be said that: (i) Portuguese colonial banking followed the continental model of government initiative and tight control, not the British model of private initiative without much government control; (ii) the development of Portuguese colonial banking was always mainly a matter of profiting from the opportunities afforded by economic evolution rather than a matter of autonomously fostering the economic development of the territories.