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Context
Developments in the use of remote aircraft, or unmanned aerial systems (UAS), for ecological study have been rapid. Helicopter surveys have proven to be a reliable, repeatable method for broad-scale monitoring of harvested kangaroo populations in Australia's rangelands, but the recent availability of long-range UAS may offer improvements in detectability and cost efficiency.

Aims
We aimed to test the ability of a long-range UAS (Spylite, Bluebird Aero Systems Ltd, Kadima, Israel) to survey macropod populations at a landscape scale, and validate the results against those from the current best-practice helicopter surveys.

Methods
Four 80-km transects in south-western Queensland were surveyed using a helicopter and UAS. Two observers, occupying the rear seats of the helicopter, recorded animals observed in distance classes perpendicular to either side of the aircraft. Continuous electro-optical (EO) or infrared (IR) video from the UAS were recorded for later processing. Animal densities were calculated using line-transect methods for both techniques. The efficiency and cost effectiveness of each survey technique were also assessed using the flight and data processing times.

Key results
The encounter rate for macropods during the UAS was significantly lower compared with the helicopter survey, resulting in low estimates of macropod density (3.2 versus 53.8 animals km–2 respectively). The UAS technique recorded between 2.9 and 12.7% of the macropod density observed on each transect during the helicopter survey. The helicopter surveys were less expensive and more efficient and cost effective, requiring less flight and data processing time than the UAS surveys.

Conclusions
Utilising long-range UAS to detect and count groups of wild animals for landscape-scale wildlife monitoring has potential, but improvements in detection and identification technology are needed to match or exceed the accuracy of the conventional aerial survey technique for kangaroos.

Implications
Recent advances in camera technology and methodological refinements are encouraging for aerial survey of wildlife using UAS. However, significant improvements are required to survey for kangaroos and new technology should again be tested against current benchmarks.

Mode of access: Internet. ; rare: In Pamphlets, Legal, Misc., v. 2. ; grad: No.3 in volume lettered: Pamphlets on the constitution

Background: Reindeer and caribou (both belonging to the species Rangifer tarandus L.) are among the most important large herbivores in Eurasia's and North America's arctic, alpine and boreal zones. In Sweden, the impact of reindeer grazing on arctic and alpine vegetation has recently been re-evaluated. In the 1990s, records of grazing-related vegetation degradation helped to form a widespread perception that some mountain areas were overgrazed. However, later analyses have shown no evidence of large-scale overutilisation of reindeer ranges in the Swedish mountains. The present-day consensus is that overgrazing has been temporary and local, and that it rarely has caused permanent damage, but it is imperative to examine the scientific support for these views. Moreover, the Swedish Parliament has adopted an environmental quality objective according to which it is essential to preserve 'a mountain landscape characterised by grazing'. No details have been given on how this goal is to be interpreted, which is another reason why the significance of reindeer grazing for arctic/alpine vegetation needs to be assessed. This protocol presents the methodology that will be used in a systematic review of the impact of reindeer herbivory in arctic and alpine ecosystems. The focus will be on Fennoscandia, but data from other parts of the range of R. tarandus will be used when deemed appropriate. Methods: The review will be based on primary field studies that compare vegetation subject to different degrees of reindeer/caribou herbivory (including grazing and browsing as well as trampling). Such comparisons can be either temporal, spatial or both. The review will cover impacts of herbivory in arctic, subarctic, alpine and subalpine areas (including the forest-tundra ecotone) across the range of R. tarandus, but not in boreal forests. Relevant aspects of vegetation include cover (abundance), biomass, diversity (e.g. species richness), structure, composition (including functional groups) and productivity.

Abstract Background: Reindeer and caribou (both belonging to the species Rangifer tarandus L.) are among the most important large herbivores in Eurasia's and North America's arctic, alpine and boreal zones. In Sweden, the impact of reindeer grazing on arctic and alpine vegetation has recently been re-evaluated. In the 1990s, records of grazing-related vegetation degradation helped to form a widespread perception that some mountain areas were overgrazed. However, later analyses have shown no evidence of large-scale overutilisation of reindeer ranges in the Swedish mountains. The present-day consensus is that overgrazing has been temporary and local, and that it rarely has caused permanent damage, but it is imperative to examine the scientific support for these views. Moreover, the Swedish Parliament has adopted an environmental quality objective according to which it is essential to preserve 'a mountain landscape characterised by grazing'. No details have been given on how this goal is to be interpreted, which is another reason why the significance of reindeer grazing for arctic/alpine vegetation needs to be assessed. This protocol presents the methodology that will be used in a systematic review of the impact of reindeer herbivory in arctic and alpine ecosystems. The focus will be on Fennoscandia, but data from other parts of the range of R. tarandus will be used when deemed appropriate. Methods: The review will be based on primary field studies that compare vegetation subject to different degrees of reindeer/caribou herbivory (including grazing and browsing as well as trampling). Such comparisons can be either temporal, spatial or both. The review will cover impacts of herbivory in arctic, subarctic, alpine and subalpine areas (including the forest-tundra ecotone) across the range of R. tarandus, but not in boreal forests. Relevant aspects of vegetation include cover (abundance), biomass, diversity (e.g. species richness), structure, composition (including functional groups) and productivity. Keywords: Reindeer, Caribou, Rangifer tarandus, Herbivory, Grazing, Browsing, Vegetation, Alpine, Arctic, Tundra

Agro-pastoral production system in western Serengeti is subsistence oriented livelihoods directed towards attaining self-sufficiency in food and livestock production and supporting growing human population. Production strategies involves the extensive use of land cultivating for food and cash crops production, and fallowing land. Households form the basic units of production, which utilize land, family labour, livestock keeping and any capital at their disposal to meet their production goals. Livestock, especially cattle have great symbolic value regarded as a bank on hoves, and a basis for various traditional transactions that makes households strive to increase livestock capital. Analysis of crops production and livestock population trends reveal that agro-pastoral system expand due to increase in prices of livestock products. Paucity of land to absorb the growing human and livestock population caused the political and administrative machinery to develop and implement village land use plans to ensure proper land utilization. However, introduction of land use plans alone is not a panacea to land use problems in villages. It was envisaged that land use plan should be accompanied by introduction of sustainable crops and livestock production systems by improving productivity of land in terms of pasture and crops to support the current human and livestock population in the Western Serengeti. The future direction of agro-pastoralism in Western Serengeti under these circumstances is not well understood. This entails a need for a multidisciplinary study of impact of agro-pastoralism on livelihood of people in Western Serengeti. ; Agro-pastoral production system in western Serengeti is subsistence oriented livelihoods directed towards attaining self-sufficiency in food and livestock production and supporting growing human population. Production strategies involves the extensive use of land cultivating for food and cash crops production, and fallowing land. Households form the basic units of production, which utilize land, family labour, livestock keeping and any capital at their disposal to meet their production goals. Livestock, especially cattle have great symbolic value regarded as a bank on hoves, and a basis for various traditional transactions that makes households strive to increase livestock capital. Analysis of crops production and livestock population trends reveal that agro-pastoral system expand due to increase in prices of livestock products. Paucity of land to absorb the growing human and livestock population caused the political and administrative machinery to develop and implement village land use plans to ensure proper land utilization. However, introduction of land use plans alone is not a panacea to land use problems in villages. It was envisaged that land use plan should be accompanied by introduction of sustainable crops and livestock production systems by improving productivity of land in terms of pasture and crops to support the current human and livestock population in the Western Serengeti. The future direction of agro-pastoralism in Western Serengeti under these circumstances is not well understood. This entails a need for a multidisciplinary study of impact of agro-pastoralism on livelihood of people in Western Serengeti.

Context Invasive species are a major cause of biodiversity loss across much of the world, and a key threat to Australia's diverse reptile fauna. There has been no previous comprehensive analysis of the potential impact of the introduced European red fox, Vulpes vulpes, on Australian reptiles. Aims We seek to provide an inventory of all Australian reptile species known to be consumed by the fox, and identify characteristics of squamate species associated with such predation. We also compare these tallies and characteristics with reptile species known to be consumed by the domestic cat, Felis catus, to examine whether predation by these two introduced species is compounded (i.e. affecting much the same set of species) or complementary (affecting different groups of species). Methods We collated records of Australian reptiles consumed by foxes in Australia, with most records deriving from fox dietary studies (tallying >35 000 samples). We modelled presence or absence of fox predation records against a set of biological and other traits, and population trends, for squamate species. Key results In total, 108 reptile species (~11% of Australia's terrestrial reptile fauna) have been recorded as consumed by foxes, fewer than that reported for cats (263 species). Eighty-six species have been reported to be eaten by both predators. More Australian turtle species have been reported as consumed by foxes than by cats, including many that suffer high levels of predation on egg clutches. Twenty threatened reptile species have been reported as consumed by foxes, and 15 by cats. Squamate species consumed by foxes are more likely to be undergoing population decline than those not known to be consumed by foxes. The likelihood of predation by foxes increased with squamate species' adult body mass, in contrast to the relationship for predation by cats, which peaked at ~217 g. Foxes, but not cats, were also less likely to consume venomous snakes. Conclusions The two introduced, and now widespread, predators have both compounding and complementary impacts on the Australian reptile fauna. Implications Enhanced and integrated management of the two introduced predators is likely to provide substantial conservation benefits to much of the Australian reptile fauna.