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Successes and failures with technological innovation can, in some cases, be attributed to the decision-making processes in the user organization. There has been a growing interest among strategy researchers in managerial cognitions. This paper describes the nature and importance of knowledge bases and cognitions for decisions about technological innovation and suggests how knowledge and cognitions can be explored using process research. An example is given from research comparing firms who had tried to adopt computer-aided production management technologies. This research illustrated that knowledge bases provided the potential to innovate but that cognitions of individuals also shaped the outcomes of decisions about the design of the innovation. Cognitive mapping methodologies could be used to explore systematically and in more detail the cognitions of individuals and groups. The paper provides an overview of these methodologies. It concludes that they are useful to researchers, particularly in conjunction with process research, and potentially useful to practitioners, for understanding managerial cognitions and for anticipating problems that may arise as a result of these cognitions.

Existing studies suggest that, because knowledge is becoming more widely distributed, innovation increasingly needs to occur 'at the interstices' of collaborating groups and organizations. Networked innovation processes are therefore emphasized, over more hierarchical or market-based forms, as having distinct advantages for the creation and integration of knowledge. Whilst the structural properties of networks have been heavily scrutinized, there is relatively less understanding of processes, in particular the political dynamics that shape networked innovation. This article aims to develop understanding of networked innovation processes, by identifying and relating the characteristics of networked innovation to the productive, or constraining, effects of different dimensions of power (power of resource, meaning and process). It does this through comparative analysis of three case studies of networked innovation, each involving the development of new technology. This analysis suggests that understanding the politics of networked innovation depends on understanding the generative (and sometimes degenerative) relationship between power, knowledge integration, network formation, and the role of technology. Moreover, the co-ordination of networks, rather than simply their formation, is found to play a particularly crucial role.

The aim of this paper is to explore and explain the emergence over time of forms of organization and governance (referred to as ' organizing templates') in a knowledge-intensive firm (KIF). A longitudinal case study tracks the ways in which this firm has evolved from its inception in 1986 through to 2001. The analysis emphasizes, in particular, the strategic role of power politics in shaping organizing templates following firm success and expansion. The paper focuses on the shift away from adhocracy as the (ideological) organizing template and towards a new form of governance within the firm, characterized as soft bureaucracy. It shows how this shift coincides with economic, technological and cultural imperatives imposed by the increased sovereignty of the market. A multilevel analytical model of organizational change processes is outlined in which shifting dominant management logics are aligned with firm level innovations through organizing templates. This framework is used to structure our narrative historical account of the various phases of restructuring throughout the period. The paper attempts to inform existing understanding of soft bureaucracy by showing how this particular form of governance emerges in a KIF through the interplay between macro-level sectoral change and micro-political processes. It concludes by considering first the implications of this shift for firm level knowledge work processes, and second, the politics of organizational change more generally in the knowledge-intensive sector at the start of the 21st century.

Inter-organizational and multi-functional networking are increasingly portrayed as new and potentially more effective forms of organization, especially where innovation is important. This is as true for academic work undertaken within universities as it is for business organizations; multi-disciplinary and inter-institutional collaboration being specified as highly desirable by the major research funding bodies. Integrating mechanisms are essential if such networks are to be effective in co-ordinating the work of a diverse range of partners. Importantly, they are required for the development of trust. Thus, the literature stresses that trust between the parties is central to the effective operation of such networks. This paper explores the evolution of trust within a particular inter-university, multi-disciplinary research team, and develops a model depicting the development and interrelation of different types of trust within this network. The difficulties this research network experienced in developing trust raise a more general question about the effectiveness of interdisciplinary research.

This paper presents an empirical study of an `expert' consultancy focusing on the changes that have occurred in the dominant mode of organizing over its 12-year history. From its inception, the firm was deliberately structured in such a way as to stimulate invention and innovation. The paper traces the changes that have occurred with specific reference to frameworks which emphasize modes of knowledge, knowledge communication and power. The research found that the organization had changed in ways not in keeping with that predicted for firms that are `knowledge intensive', becoming formalized over time. Whilst explicit rules and procedures had not been implemented, dominant norms and values had emerged which shaped organizational arrangements and constrained processes of innovation. Thus, we question the sustainability of contemporary modes of organizing.

It is important for firms to be able to adopt technologies that offer them com petitive advantage. Before adoption can occur, knowledge about new technolo gies needs to be diffused so that firms can decide what is relevant to their needs. Professional associations see themselves as key agents in this diffusion of knowledge. Members of professional associations working in industry may act as boundary spanners who, through their involvement in these inter organizational networks, are able to learn about new technological develop ments. This paper examines the relevance of a professional association for this diffusion process, using the example of a specific technological domain — production and inventory control (PIC). The research investigated a profes sional PIC association in Canada. A survey of members revealed that this association was perceived to be an important network for learning about new developments in PIC. Predictors of technological innovation in PIC included involvement in the professional development activities of this professional association, as well as firm size and members' communication within their firm. The findings support the idea that professional associations impart knowl edge that is important for the diffusion of technology. However, the influence of this professional association was limited by its rather small size and its lack of penetration into small firms. The results from the Canadian association are compared with earlier work conducted with similar associations in Britain and the United States and suggest that there are national differences in the roles of these associations in the knowledge diffusion process.

Success in appropriating technological innovations is likely to be a key
factor in maintaining a firm′s competitive advantage. Managers′
cognitions, or belief systems, play an important role in the
decision‐making process that leads to the adoption of innovations, but
research in this area has been neglected. Reports on a cognitive mapping
methodology that has been used to reveal managers′ beliefs about the
causes and effects of a particular type of technological innovation.
These managers′ beliefs are compared with suggestions made in the
academic literature about the factors that influence a firm′s level of
innovation and some interesting differences are discussed. Concludes by
examining the potential for cognitive mapping techniques to be used as
practical tools to assist managers in their decision making.

The divide between research and practice is one of the biggest challenges to healthcare improvement globally. This book builds a research-led, empirically-grounded, state of the art review of how knowledge is mobilised in healthcare settings and the critical challenges involved

How do newcomers gain access to learning opportunities when they are denied opportunities to practice? Changes in the nature of work, such as labour outsourcing and technological advancements, have created challenges for newcomers to learn. They may be more easily relegated to low-level repetitive tasks, such as scutwork. In these situations, newcomers' ambiguous position as learners can limit access to participation in practices needed to progress their learning trajectories. Using field-study data, we explore the situated learning of merchant-navy cadets. We show that, when newcomers are not permitted access to participation, the structural arrangements of practice – temporal structures, spatial territories and hierarchical arrangements – hinder learning opportunities. We show, further, that some newcomers leverage these same structural arrangements surreptitiously as resources to access participation, which we conceptualise as stealth work. Consequently, we unveil the soft forms of power at play in crafting access to learning trajectories, making three contributions. First, we show how structural arrangements of a practice can be leveraged to enable learning. Second, we show that gaining access stealthily, requires both normative and counter-normative performances. Third, we show the importance of access in crafting learning trajectories and unpack how such access is navigated by newcomers.

Studies suggest that the experience of liminality – of being in an ambiguous, 'betwixt and between' position – has creative potential for organizations. We contribute to theory on the link between liminality and creative agency through a study of the coordinators of 'knowledge-sharing communities'; one of the latest examples of a 'neo-bureaucratic' practice that seeks to elicit innovative responses from employees while intensifying control by the organization. Through a role-centred perspective, our study found that both the structural and interpretive aspects of coordinators' role enactments promoted a degree of creative agency. 'Front-stage' and 'back-stage' activities were developed to meet the divergent expectations posed by senior management and community members, and the ambiguity of their roles prompted an array of different role interpretations. Our findings contribute to theory by showing how the link between liminality and creative agency is not confined to roles and spaces (consultancy work, professional expertise) that are positioned across organizational boundaries, or free from norms and expectations, but may also apply to roles that are ambiguously situated within organizational contexts and that are subject to divergent expectations. This shows how neo-bureaucratic forms may be both reproduced and renewed through the creative responses of individual managers.

In this paper we make a case for the use of multiple theoretical perspectives—theory on boundary objects, epistemic objects, cultural historical activity theory, and objects as infrastructure—to understand the role of objects in cross-disciplinary collaboration. A pluralist approach highlights that objects perform at least three types of work in this context: they motivate collaboration, they allow participants to work across different types of boundaries, and they constitute the fundamental infrastructure of the activity. Building on the results of an empirical study, we illustrate the insights that each theoretical lens affords into practices of collaboration and develop a novel analytical framework that organizes objects according to the active work they perform. Our framework can help shed new light on the phenomenon, especially with regard to the shifting status of objects and sources of conflict (and change) in collaboration. After discussing these novel insights, we outline directions for future research stemming from a pluralist approach. We conclude by noting the managerial implications of our findings.

The embedding of new management knowledge in project-based organization is made particularly problematic due to the attenuated links that exist between organization-wide change initiatives and project management practice. To explore the complex processes involved in change in project-based organization, this paper draws upon a case study of change within the UK construction industry. Analysing the case study through the lens of structuration theory (Giddens 1984), the paper examines the complex, recursive relationship that links change in project management practice with the peculiarities of that context. The findings demonstrate that a number of features of project-based organization — namely, decentralization, short-term emphasis on project performance and distributed work practices — are critically important in understanding the shaping and embedding of new management practice.

This article presents an analysis of institutional influences upon knowledge creation within professional service firms, whose main business is the provision of specialized consultancy. Such firms, we argue, provide an important setting for examining such influences because their survival depends on their ability to mobilize and synthesize professional bodies of knowledge. They, therefore, directly confront the constraints that institutionalized professions pose for processes of knowledge creation. By exploring the influence of the institutional context, the article extends earlier work on professional service and knowledge-intensive firms which has tended to adopt a more micro, organizational-level focus on knowledge creation and to neglect both the heterogeneous nature of knowledge and its embeddedness in institutional contexts. A comparative analysis of two firms located in different institutional contexts (science and the law) establishes some of the major mechanisms through which professional institutions influence knowledge-creation processes. Specifically, the analysis highlights three major arenas, related to the processes of knowledge creation within organizations, in which institutional influences are seen to operate. These are: the relative work autonomy of professional groups; the means of knowledge legitimation; and the social identity formation of professional practitioners. While institutional influences were found in these different arenas across both cases, significant differences in knowledge-creating practices were also observed. These include different emphases on experimentation versus interpretation, different forms of personal networking, and significant differences in the relative importance of codifying knowledge in documentary forms. These differences are explained in terms of institutionally embedded means of legitimating knowledge across scientific and legal contexts. In observing institutional influences on micro work practices, however, our study also highlights the role and influence of management. Specifically, in the arena of social identity, managers sought to accommodate professional norms through firm-specific arrangements, which shaped and mobilized a social identity geared toward corporate ends. Management effort thus focused on developing a collective identity, based on elitism, which was used as a means of leveraging individual creativity and expertise as an organizational resource.