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To evaluate the military performance of the army commanders who led the Union Army of the Potomac and Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in the Eastern Theater during the American Civil War, one must examine the sources from which these commanders were instructed about military tactics while at West Point. Before the Southern secession, the United States fielded a standing army of approximately 16,000 infantry. Almost immediately after secession, both the Union and Confederate military command had to create European-size infantry force from nothing more than civilian volunteers. The officers that would eventually lead the armies into battle were a new generation of West Point graduates, trained in the European-style strategy and tactics of waging war. Specifically in the Eastern Theater, from 1861 to 1863, Union and Confederate army commanders directed and maneuvered their troops according to such doctrines. Unfortunately, the Civil War occurred at a time when weapons technology and political conditions would render the original European teachings obsolete. European military strategies favored offensive operations, which were believed to be far superior to defensive operations. American interpretations of such strategies were also successfully applied in the Mexican-American War, where frontal assaults combined with turning maneuvers always carried the field. By the time of the Civil War, weapons technology had advanced considerably to the point where the defense power of the infantry superceded that of its offensive power. Thus, when the original European strategies were applied, failure resulted because such grand ideas did not consider the impact of changes on the tactical level (i.e. invention of rifled barrel). Victories that could have been accomplished three decades prior to the Civil War by using European strategies, was now inadequate because the offensive power of the infantry was stemmed, on the tactical level, by the defense arms of the infantry.

Climate change and the emerging carbon-constrained economy of the 21st Century present new challenges and opportunities for countries of the Middle East and North Africa. This paper discusses the potential for Libya to participate in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), the main flexibility mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol, which is designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainable development. The paper considers the interaction of Libya's history and socio-cultural characteristics with global policy dynamics and economic forces. Libya's geography presents considerable potential in terms of CDM project opportunities, yet key developments would be required before these could be exploited. The nature of Libya's political system and social structures suggest that these developments are unlikely to occur while the Qadhafi regime endures, and therefore that Libya will not be able to engage successfully with the CDM and international mitigation activities in the short term. However, the CDM represents a means to implement capacity building and technical development programs, which will be integral components of reconstruction strategy in the aftermath of the dramatic events of early 2011.Keywords: Libyan energy policy; Clean Development Mechanism; political ecology; socio-economic reform; Kyoto Protocol.

Climate change and the emerging carbon-constrained economy of the 21st Century present new challenges and opportunities for countries of the Middle East and North Africa. This paper discusses the potential for Libya to participate in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), the main flexibility mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol, which is designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainable development. The paper considers the interaction of Libya's history and socio-cultural characteristics with global policy dynamics and economic forces. Libya's geography presents considerable potential in terms of CDM project opportunities, yet key developments would be required before these could be exploited. The nature of Libya's political system and social structures suggest that these developments are unlikely to occur while the Qadhafi regime endures, and therefore that Libya will not be able to engage successfully with the CDM and international mitigation activities in the short term. However, the CDM represents a means to implement capacity building and technical development programs, which will be integral components of reconstruction strategy in the aftermath of the dramatic events of early 2011.Keywords: Libyan energy policy; Clean Development Mechanism; political ecology; socio-economic reform; Kyoto Protocol.

The ubiquitous use of chromium and its derivatives as corrosion preventative compounds accelerated rapidly after the second industrial revolution, with such compounds now integral to modern society. However, the detrimental impact of chromium compounds on the environment and human health has prompted the need to revisit the majority of current industrial corrosion protection measures. This review retraces the origins of chromium replacement motivations, introducing the various legislative actions aimed at diminishing the use of chromium compounds, and critically reviews alternative corrosion preventative technologies developed in the recent decades to now. The review, herein, is intended for a broad audience in order to provide a concise update to an increasingly timely issue.