Suchergebnisse

Purpose. Examine the extent to which restrained eating (RE) and changes in RE influence the risk of weight and fat gain over 36 months in women. Design. Prospective cohort. Setting. Several communities. Subjects. Baseline and follow-up assessments were completed by 192 middle-aged women (ages 40.0 ± 3 years). Measures. Body weight was measured with an electronic scale, body fat (BF) was assessed using the Bod Pod, energy intake was evaluated using 7–day weighed food records, physical activity was measured objectively using accelerometers, and RE was indexed using the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire. Analysis. Relative risk (RR) was calculated using incidence data. Results. The risk of weight gain (> 1 kg) over the 36 months was 69% greater in women who did not increase in RE compared with their counterparts (RR = 1.69, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.12–2.52). The risk of substantial weight gain (≥3 kg) was 138% greater in women who did not increase in RE compared with women who did (RR = 2.38, 95% CI = 1.16–4.89), and the risk of gains in BF (≥ 1% point) was 49%) greater (RR = 1.49, 95% CI = 1.02–2.17). Control of potential confounding factors, except changes in energy intake, had little influence on risk. Conclusion. Women who do not become more restrained in their eating over time are at much greater risk of gaining weight and BF compared with those who become more restrained.

Purpose. This study was conducted to determine the effect of a resistive training intervention on body image in middle-aged women compared to an exercise walking program. Another purpose was to develop two multivariate models to explain improvement in body image among the lifters and walkers. Design. A pretest-posttest experimental design with random assignment of subjects to two exercise groups was employed. Setting. Subjects trained in their own homes and were tested at the university. Subjects. Participants were 60 women recruited from the local community with an average age of 42.5 ± 4.2 years. Intervention. Subjects were randomly assigned to a resistive training or exercise walking program, both of which were three days per week and 12 weeks in duration. Measures. Body cathexis was assessed using the Body Cathexis Scale; cardiovascular endurance was measured using the one-mile walk test, and muscular strength was assessed using standard weight training procedures. Results. After completion of the exercise interventions, lifters showed greater muscular strength than walkers, and walkers displayed greater cardiorespiratory endurance than lifters, as expected. Lifters also improved significantly more in body image than the walkers. Conclusions. Participation in a three-day-per-week resistive training program seems to improve body image in middle-aged women more than participation in a three-day per week walking program. Further, it appears that hard work and fitness improvements contribute significantly toward positive changes in body image.

Purpose.The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of hypercholesterolemia among high-, moderate-, and low-duration television viewers. The confounding effects of age, gender, income, body fat percentage, weekly exercise duration, and smoking were also examined.Design.A cross-sectional or correlational design was employed. Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel odds ratios were used to estimate risk of the television viewers regarding hypercholesterolemia.Setting.Participants were employees of over 55 corporations that had their employees screened as part of the ongoing risk-management program of Health Advancement Services (HAS), Inc.Subjects.Subjects were 11,947 employed adults. About 85% of the subjects eligible for participation completed the screenings and were used in the study.Measures.Serum cholesterol was assessed in a certified lab, and lifestyle information, including television viewing habits, was collected via a written questionnaire. Body fat was measured using skinfolds from three body sites.Results.High-duration television viewers were almost two times more likely to suffer from hypercholesterolemia as infrequent viewers, with and without control of multiple confounding factors. Moderate-duration viewers were at 1.5 times the risk of hypercholesterolemia compared to infrequent viewers. Neither television group was at greater risk of moderately elevated cholesterol levels (200–239) compared to the infrequent viewers with all of the potential confounders controlled.Conclusions.Cause-and-effect conclusions are not warranted; however, this study coupled with other investigations shows that excessive television viewing may be an important lifestyle factor linked to decreased health and functioning.

Background. This study was conducted to determine the extent to which participation in a weight training intervention was associated with changes in the emotional well-being and body image of females compared to non-weight trainers. An ancillary objective was to study the extent to which psychological, physical, and demographic factors accounted for changes in emotional well-being and body image. Methods. The experimental group consisted of 60 females, and a comparison group was comprised of 92 females. Experimental subjects participated in a 15-week, two-day-per-week weight training intervention, while subjects in the comparison group did not participate in any weight training activities. Subjects were pre- and posttested on the General Well-Being Schedule and the Body Cathexis Scale. Experimental subjects were also tested in muscular strength and three skinfold measurements. Results. With pretest scores controlled, the weight trainers had significantly higher General Well-Being and Body Cathexis posttest scores than the comparison group. Weight trainers also showed significant increases in muscular strength, and significant decreases in skinfold thickness. Four variables predicted 38.8% of the variance of those who improved most in General Well-Being: lower pretest General Well-Being, lower parental income, greater loss of body weight, and lower posttest skinfold. Five variables predicted 61.5% of the variance of those women who improved most in Body Cathexis: lower pretest Body Cathexis, greater body weight at the outset, shorter in height, less involvement in non-weight training exercise, and lower posttest skinfold. Discussion. Cause-and-effect conclusions are not warranted given the use of intact groups, and the long-term effect of weight training on the emotional well-being of women was not discernible given the 15-week length of this study.

Background. The purpose of this epidemiologic study was to determine the extent to which aerobic fitness was associated with total cholesterol/HDL-C ratios greater than 5.0 in 10,455 adults. The confounding effects of age, gender, income, body fat, smoking, and alcohol use were also examined. Methods. A step test was used to estimate aerobic fitness, and serum cholesterol was measured in a certified lab. Lifestyle information was gathered using written questionnaires, and body fat was assessed using skinfold measurements. Results. High fitness levels were associated with low prevalence of elevated total/HDL-C ratios. After controlling for the potential confounders, adults classified as having excellent, very good, good, or fair aerobic fitness levels were .46, .64, .61, and .85 times as likely to have elevated ratios compared to poorly fit adults, respectively. High-level fitness was also related to high HDL-C levels and low total cholesterol levels. Discussion. Cause-and-effect conclusions are not warranted; however, poorly fit adults appear to be at increased risk of elevated levels of serum cholesterol.

Purpose. This study was conducted to determine if physical activity volume (PAv) and intensity (PAi) at baseline influence the likelihood of gaining hip bone mineral density (BMD) over 6 years. Design and Sample. In a prospective study, the sample was limited to 244 female nonsmokers, ages 35 to 45 years, and was approximately 90% white. Setting and Measures. PAv and PAi were measured in daily living conditions using accelerometers at baseline. BMD, measured by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry, and several confounding factors were measured in the lab. Analysis. On the basis of BMD change scores, participants were divided into three categories: BMD loss, minimal change, and BMD gain. Risk ratios were used to show the likelihood of BMD gains over time across different levels of PAv and PAi at baseline. Results. Women with higher PAv were more likely to show improvements in hip BMD from baseline to follow-up than their counterparts, as indicated by the Mantel-Haenszel chi-square (χ2mh = 6.1, p = .01). Women with high PAv were 2.50 times (95% CI, 1.19–5.24) more likely to experience hip BMD gains than women with low PAv, and women with moderate PAv were 2.20 times (95% CI, 1.08–4.45) more likely. PAi was not predictive of gains in hip BMD. Adjusting for potential confounders had little influence on the results. Conclusions. Middle-aged women with moderate or high levels of PAv are more likely to experience BMD gains at the hip over time compared with those who have low levels of PAv. However, PAi does not appear to influence the likelihood of gaining BMD at the hip over 6 years.

Purpose. Investigate the extent to which risk of weight gain is affected by emotional health. Also, determine the influence of age, baseline weight, physical activity (PA), energy intake, and changes in PA and energy intake on the relationship between emotional health and weight gain. Design. Prospective cohort. Setting. Two metropolitan areas in the Mountain West. Subjects. Total of 256 middle-aged, apparently healthy women. Measures. Emotional health was assessed using the General Well-Being Schedule. PA was measured using Actigraph accelerometers. Energy intake was measured using 7-day weighed food records. All assessments were taken at baseline and again at the follow-up approximately 2 years later. Analysis. Relative risk (RR) was calculated using incidence data. Results. With no variables controlled, women with less than positive (LTP) emotional health had 59% greater risk of weight gain (≥ 2 kg) than women with positive emotional health (RR, 1.59; 95% confidence intervals [CI], 1.04–2.44). After adjustments for each potential confounder individually, risk of weight gain did not change significantly. However, adjusting for all of the potential confounders simultaneously weakened the risk of weight gain (RR, 1.43; 95% CI, .93–2.21). Risk of weight gain (≥ 2 kg) was no greater in depressed women compared with their counterparts. Conclusion. Middle-aged women with LTP emotional health are at significantly increased risk of weight gain over time compared with women with positive emotional health.

Purpose. This study examined the relationship between lifestyle-related health risks and health care costs and utilization in adults. Design. A 2-year prospective study with no intervention was used to compare health care utilization and costs in employees with different levels of health risks. Setting. Data were collected at a primarily white-collar worksite during 1994 and 1995. Subjects. Subjects included 982 employees and spouses, mean age 32.1 ± 10.1 years. Measures. Employee medical claims obtained from a third-party administrator were analyzed with respect to health care expenses and utilization. Exercise habits, stress, and overall wellness were assessed by self-report and obesity by the body mass index (BMI). Regression, regression with outliers removed, and odds ratios were used to analyze the associations. Results. Employees who were at high risk for overall wellness (2.4 times), stress (1.9 times), and obesity (1.7 times) were more likely to have high health care costs (>$5,000) than subjects not at high risk. Mean total medical costs also were greater for high-risk subjects compared to lower risk subjects for overall wellness (difference = $1,973; F = 10.65, p = .001), stress (difference = $1,137; F = 7.35, p = .007), and obesity (difference = $1,092; F = 9.09, p = .003). The exercise habits measure was not significantly associated with health care costs or utilization. Conclusions. Results indicate that health risks, particularly obesity, stress, and general lifestyle, are significant predictors of health care costs and utilization in employed young adults.

Purpose. This study was conducted to determine the extent of the relationship between obesity and absenteeism due to illness. A secondary objective was to ascertain the extent to which age, gender, family income, length of workweek, and cigarette smoking influenced the obesity-absenteeism association. Design. A cross-sectional design was used. Data regarding obesity, absenteeism, and the potential confounding factors were collected during the same time period. Setting. Data were collected within workplaces throughout the U.S., and at the headquarters of Health Advancement Services, Inc. (HAS). Subjects. Subjects were 10,825 employed men and women who participated in an ongoing wellness screening program administered by HAS. Measures. The three-site skinfold technique was used to estimate body fat percentage. Absenteeism due to illness and the potential confounding variables were assessed using a structured paper-pencil questionnaire. Results. Without controlling for any potential confounders, obese employees were more than twice as likely to experience high-level absenteeism (seven or more absences due to illness during the past 6 months), and 1.49 times more likely to suffer from moderate absenteeism (three to six absences due to illness during the last 6 months) than were lean employees. With all of the potential confounders controlled simultaneously, obese employees were 1.74 and 1.61 times more likely to experience high and moderate levels of absenteeism, respectively, than were lean individuals. Conclusions. Obese employees tend to be absent from work due to illness substantially more than their counterparts.

Purpose. This study was conducted to determine the relation between the quantity of strength training and hypercholesterolemia (total cholesterol ⩽ 240 mg/dl) in men. A secondary objective was to ascertain the effects of age, smoking, alcohol use, body mass, and participation in physical activities other than strength training on the association between strength training and hypercholesterolemia. Design. A cross-sectional research design was used. Setting. Data were collected at the worksites of subjects throughout the United States. Subjects. The participants were 8499 male employees of more than 50 companies. Measures. Blood was drawn while the subjects were in a fasting state, and a questionnaire was used to collect the demographic and lifestyle information, including the data about strength training. The subjects were divided into five groups according to their self-reported duration and frequency (i.e., quantity) of participation in strength training. Results. Subjects who reported regular involvement in strength training had a reduced risk of hypercholesterolemia. However, after controlling for all the potential confounders, only the high-quantity lifters, those who completed 4 to 7 hours of strength training each week, maintained a reduced risk of hypercholesterolemia. Conclusions. High-quantity strength training is strongly associated with a reduced risk of hypercholesterolemia, even after controlling for numerous, potentially confounding factors (odds ratio = .46; 95% confidence interval = .23 to .91).

Purpose. This study was conducted to develop a regression equation that accurately estimates body fat percentage using relatively easy and inexpensive methods that do not require women to remove clothing. Design. A cross-sectional design was employed. Setting. All data were collected at the University. Subjects. Subjects were 200 white women ages 20 to 65 years. The sample was equally distributed across four age groups, 20–29, 30–39, 40–49, and 50–65, and within each age group, one-third of the women were lean, one-third were of average weight, and one-third were obese. Measures. Subjects were hydrostatically weighed and participated in a variety of anthropometric and lifestyle assessments, including skinfolds, circumferences, and questionnaire responses. Results. The full regression model included six measures: hip circumference, triceps skinfold (observed and quadratic), age (quadratic), self-reported physical activity, and calf skinfold (quadratic). This equation accounted for 81 % of the variance in body weight measured by hydrostatic weighing (SEE = 3.5%). A simpler, five-variable equation was also formed that did not include the calf skinfold assessment (R2 = .800, SEE = 3.6%). Conclusions. The prediction equations in this study afford accurate and relatively easy and inexpensive means of estimating body fat percentage in a wide range of white women without having them remove their clothing.