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I present a few general comments on the study of causality from the viewpoint of research methodology and philosophy of science. Researchers should notice that there are several conceptions of causality implicating diverse research strategies. I argue that a mechanism approach to causality is most adequate and that this approach calls attention to the level of explanation and the importance of context and intervening causal mechanisms.

Modern professions provide important and essential services like engineering, financial services, and welfare state services. Sustaining a sufficient supply of these services requires professionals to remain in the workforce as long as possible. This article examines variation in the risk of disability pension among individuals with different professional education backgrounds according to the status of the profession and its primary task (i.e., caring for others, "life" professions; or providing other kinds of services, "thing" professions). Event history analy-sis was employed to examine register data for the Norwegian population from 1992 through 2008, with gender, age at completed education, birth year, and social status as control variables. The results indicate that individuals in low-status life professions were exposed to a greater risk of disability pension than individuals with other professional education backgrounds. Possible explanations are mechanisms related to selection effects, physical and mental job strain, and professional ethics.

AbstractStreet-level bureaucrats are considered to be subject to bureaucratic managerial regimes and threatened by stronger regulation and a reduction in their ability to exercise control over their work. Contrary to the managerial approach, predicting curtailment of professional autonomy, theorists foretell the continuing importance of discretion in the translation of social objectives into actual service delivery. Given such opposite predictions, what is the perceived direction of change and scope for independent decision-making for front-line workers? This paper empirically investigates the contradictory hypotheses predicting continuing or declining opportunities for street-level discretion in a context of activation policies and welfare reforms. The data come from two surveys conducted among practitioners and local managers in the Norwegian employment and welfare services in 2004 and 2011. Despite managerial control and bureaucratic procedures that regulate many decisions, discretion still remains a characteristic of front-line work. Continued discretion is closely related to the implementation of activation goals and the merging of tasks and integrated services following the whole-of-government reform. The findings confirm the role of managers as key players in implementing policies at the local level. Concurrently, the discretionary power of trained social workers is decreasing and challenged by the push for uniform practices and a managerially regulated role.

AbstractFarmers' satisfaction with their farm job can have far‐reaching implications, as farmer and livestock wellbeing is likely to be intertwined. The aim of this study was to explore how job satisfaction of Norwegian sheep farmers is associated with other work‐related traits, such as work motivation, perceived physical work environment, the performance of management routines, and the proportion of their income derived from farming. Overall, respondents to the questionnaire (n = 1206) reported high levels of job satisfaction, and they were more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated. Regression analyses revealed that the strongest predictor of job satisfaction was intrinsic work motivation. Routinisation of management practices was also positively associated with job satisfaction, whereas extrinsic motivation and negative physical work environment were negatively associated. In conclusion, job satisfaction of Norwegian sheep farmers is mainly predicted by their intrinsic work motivation. Knowledge of this kind can be of use in supporting farmers, and through that enabling them to be proficient stockpeople.