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This book examines the effects of social relations during primary school on childrens neurobiology and pathways to maladaptation. It explores the ways in which after the transition to primary education children, supervised by teachers, need to function with their peers. The volume addresses issues affecting 10% to 20% of children who become poorly accepted or victimized by peers, receive low support by teachers or even have conflictual relations with teachers, and may perceive the classroom as a whole as nonsupportive. Key areas of coverage include: Detrimental effects of such social experiences, providing an overview of how such experiences affect childrens neurobiology factors to understand why these children develop maladaptive outcomes. Manifestations of social relations, their complexity, interrelations, and pathways leading to the maladaptive outcomes. How genetic factors may evoke childrens social environment and make them susceptible to its impact (e.g., findings on DNA methylation at both epigenome-wide level as well as on particular loci on candidate genes). Links between social environmental stressors and the psychophysiology of elementary school children and reviews both links with the autonomic nervous system as well as with the HPA-axis. The impact of social experiences on neurocognitive function development, decision making, and structural and functional brain development and discusses implications for research, prevention, and intervention. Biosocial Interplay During Elementary School is a must-have resource for researchers, professors, and graduate students as well as clinicians and other professionals in clinical child, school, and developmental psychology, educational psychology/policy and politics, social work, neuroscience, public health, and all related disciplines.

Adolescence is a period of increased risk-taking behavior where individual differences in risk taking may relate to both adverse and positive experiences with peers. Yet, knowledge on how risk processing develops in the adolescent brain and whether this development is related to peer attachment is limited. In this longitudinal functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study, we collected data from 167 adolescents (53% male) followed for four annual assessments across ages 13-17 years. At each assessment, participants completed a lottery choice task to assess neural risk processing and reported on their perceived attachment to peers and parents. Behaviorally, risk-preference on the lottery choice task decreased linearly with age. Neural activation during risk processing was consistently found in the insula and dACC across the four assessments and increased linearly from ages 13-17 years. Furthermore, higher peer attachment was related to greater right insula risk processing for males but not for females, even after controlling for parental attachment. The magnitudes of this association did not change with age. Findings demonstrate that neural risk processing shows maturation across adolescence and high peer attachment may be associated with low risk taking by heightening neural sensitivity to potential risks for male adolescents. ; National Institute on Drug AbuseUnited States Department of Health & Human ServicesNational Institutes of Health (NIH) - USANIH National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) [R01 DA036017, F31 DA042594]; European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programmeEuropean Research Council (ERC) [646594] ; This research was funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse awarded to Jungmeen Kim-Spoon and Brooks King-Casas (R01 DA036017) and to Nina Lauharatanahirun (F31 DA042594), and by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme awarded to Pol A.C. van Lier (646594). We thank the former and current members of the JK Lifespan Development Lab at Virginia Tech for their help with data collection. We are grateful to the adolescents and parents who participated in this study.