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Neuroinflammation is a common feature shared by neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease (PD), and seems to play a key role in their development and progression. Microglia cells, the principal orchestrators of neuroinflammation, can be polarized in different phenotypes, which means they are able to have anti-inflammatory, pro-inflammatory, or neurodegenerative effects. Increasing evidence supports that the traditional Mediterranean dietary pattern is related to the reduction of cognitive decline in neurodegenerative diseases. A considerable intake of plant foods, fish, and extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), as well as a moderate consumption of red wine, all characteristic of the Mediterranean diet (MD), are behind these effects. These foods are especially rich in polyphenols, being the most relevant in the MD hydroxytyrosol (HT) and their derivatives present in EVOO, which have demonstrated a wide array of biological activities. Here, we demonstrate that HT is able to reduce the inflammation induced by two different stimuli: lipopolysaccharide and α-synuclein. We also study the possible molecular mechanisms involved in the anti-inflammatory effect of HT, including the study of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, and inflammasome. Our data support the use of HT to prevent the inflammation associated with PD and shed light into the relationship between MD and this neurological disorder. ; This research was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades/FEDER/UE (RTI2018-098645-B-100); the Spanish Government (MICINN AGL2016-77505-C3-2-R); and the Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness (M.G.-F.' FPI contract). The authors would also like to thank the Fundación Alfonso Martín Escudero for R.H.-O postdoctoral fellowship. The APC was funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades/FEDER/UE (RTI2018-098645-B-100).

This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxidative Stress in Neurodegenerative Diseases: From Preclinical Studies to Clinical Applications. ; In neurodegenerative diseases, microglia-mediated neuroinflammation and oxidative stress are central events. Recent genome-wide transcriptomic analyses of microglial cells under different disease conditions have uncovered a new subpopulation named disease-associated microglia (DAM). These studies have challenged the classical view of the microglia polarization state's proinflammatory M1 (classical activation) and immunosuppressive M2 (alternative activation). Molecular signatures of DAM and proinflammatory microglia (highly pro-oxidant) have shown clear differences, yet a partial overlapping gene profile is evident between both phenotypes. The switch activation of homeostatic microglia into reactive microglia relies on the selective activation of key surface receptors involved in the maintenance of brain homeostasis (a.k.a. pattern recognition receptors, PRRs). Two relevant PRRs are toll-like receptors (TLRs) and triggering receptors expressed on myeloid cells-2 (TREM2), whose selective activation is believed to generate either a proinflammatory or a DAM phenotype, respectively. However, the recent identification of endogenous disease-related ligands, which bind to and activate both TLRs and TREM2, anticipates the existence of rather complex microglia responses. Examples of potential endogenous dual ligands include amyloid β, galectin-3, and apolipoprotein E. These pleiotropic ligands induce a microglia polarization that is more complicated than initially expected, suggesting the possibility that different microglia subtypes may coexist. This review highlights the main microglia polarization states under disease conditions and their leading role orchestrating oxidative stress. ; This research and APC were funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades/FEDER/UE RTI2018-098645-B-100. J.G.-R. and I.G.-D. were funded by predoctoral fellowships from Spanish Government. M.A.B was funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (Programa Ramón y Cajal: RYC-2017-21804). MSS was funded by a Marie-Sklodowska Curie Fellowship H2020-MSCA-IF-2017-795695. ; Peer reviewed

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease in which the formation of extracellular aggregates of amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide, fibrillary tangles of intraneuronal tau and microglial activation are major pathological hallmarks. One of the key molecules involved in microglial activation is galectin-3 (gal3), and we demonstrate here for the first time a key role of gal3 in AD pathology. Gal3 was highly upregulated in the brains of AD patients and 5xFAD (familial Alzheimer's disease) mice and found specifically expressed in microglia associated with Aβ plaques. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the LGALS3 gene, which encodes gal3, were associated with an increased risk of AD. Gal3 deletion in 5xFAD mice attenuated microglia-associated immune responses, particularly those associated with TLR and TREM2/DAP12 signaling. In vitro data revealed that gal3 was required to fully activate microglia in response to fibrillar Aβ. Gal3 deletion decreased the Aβ burden in 5xFAD mice and improved cognitive behavior. Interestingly, a single intrahippocampal injection of gal3 along with Aβ monomers in WT mice was sufficient to induce the formation of long-lasting (2 months) insoluble Aβ aggregates, which were absent when gal3 was lacking. High-resolution microscopy (stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy) demonstrated close colocalization of gal3 and TREM2 in microglial processes, and a direct interaction was shown by a fluorescence anisotropy assay involving the gal3 carbohydrate recognition domain. Furthermore, gal3 was shown to stimulate TREM2–DAP12 signaling in a reporter cell line. Overall, our data support the view that gal3 inhibition may be a potential pharmacological approach to counteract AD. ; This work was supported by Grants from the Swedish Research Council, and the Strong Research Environment MultiPark (Multidisciplinary Research in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's Disease at Lund University), Bagadilico (Linné consortium sponsored by the Swedish Research Council), the Swedish Alzheimer's Foundation, Swedish Brain Foundation, A.E. Berger Foundation, Gyllenstiernska Krapperup Foundation, the Royal Physiographic Society, Crafoord Foundation, Olle Engkvist Byggmästare Foundation, Wiberg Foundation, G&J Kock Foundation, Stohnes Foundation, Swedish Dementia Association and the Medical Faculty at Lund University. This work was supported by Grant SAF2015-64171R (Spanish MINECO/FEDER, UE), by Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCiii) of Spain, co-financed by FEDER funds from European Union through grants PI15/00796 and PI18/01557 (to AG), PI15/00957 and PI18/01556 (to JV), and CIBERNED (to AG and JV), by Consejería de Economía, Innovación, Ciencia y Empleo, Junta de Andalucia Proyecto de Excelencia (CTS-2035) (to JV and AG), and by Malaga University grant PPIT.UMA.B1.2017/26 (to RSV). AV and GCB received funding from the Innovative Medicines Initiative 2 Joint Undertaking under Grant agreement no. 115976 (PHAGO). CIBERNED "Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid (Spain)". HL and AF were supported by the Swedish Research Council, the Swedish Brain Foundation, the Alzheimer Foundation and the Åhlén Foundation. UJN was supported by Grants from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (KAW 2013.0022) and the Swedish Research Council (Grant no. 621-2012-2978). ; Peer reviewed