Masters Thesis – Academic Year 2007/2008 - European Master's Degree in Human Rights and Democratization (E.MA) - European Inter-university Centre for Human Rights and Democratization (EIUC) -Faculdade de Direito, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (UNL) ; Trafficked people experience multiple processes of avoidable human rights violation in countries of origin, transit and destination. In recent years, international, regional organizations and States, have adopted an anti-trafficking hard and soft law approach based on an 'integrated perspective' consistent with the 'three P's approach', namely prosecution, protection and prevention. However, disposals concerning prevention, meant as human-centred public policies and targeted development cooperation initiatives aimed at reducing potential victims' vulnerability in the countries of origin, are neither legally binding on States nor concretely translated into national anti-trafficking strategies, that keep being focused mainly on reactive and protective measures. These last sets of policies, although complementary, do not contribute to the eradication of potential victims' vulnerability. A human rights-centred perspective entails going grassroots in order to identify the daily contextual threats that make individuals likely to believe in traffickers' promises in order to escape to hopeless living conditions. In fact, a bottom-up approach implies investing resources to eradicate the root-causes at the basis of human trafficking that go beyond the mere presence of traffickers and lie in women's socio-economic vulnerability. The case-study of Brazilians trafficked to Portugal for the purpose of sexual exploitation shows that human trafficking turns into the mean through which many Brazilian women attempt to escape everyday socio-economic vulnerability. For this very reason, it is argued that anti-trafficking policies, carried out also in cooperation with non-traditional bottom-up stakeholders, must reach potential victims of trafficking in their own daily context and provide them with viable alternatives in order to be effective and human.
Conforme dados do Ministério do Interior italiano, os brasileiros que se encontravam na Itália de forma regular em 31 de dezembro de 2011 perfaziam um total de 48.230. Trata-se duma população constituída por 73,1% de mulheres e 26,9% de homens. Ao longo dos anos, esta comunidade aumentou consideravelmente, sendo sempre caracterizada por uma maior porcentagem de mulheres. Além disso, trata-se, sobretudo, de uma população adulta: de acordo com os dados do Ministério do Interior, 45,1% têm idade entre 30 e 44 anos, 24,3% entre 8 e 29 anos e 18,9% entre 45 e 64 anos; 44,1% são casados e 45,7% solteiros. É importante lembrar que os menores entre 0 e 14 anos representam 7,6% da coletividade. A maioria dos brasileiros na Itália encontra-se nas seguintes regiões: Lombardia, Lazio, Veneto, Piemonte, Emilia Romagna e Toscana.
This article examines contemporary, mass migration from the perspective of human security. It tracks the development of the human security model of international relations, and compares it to the well-established state security model that has served as the dominant paradigm for international relations since the seventeenth century. The article argues that human security offers a more effective approach to many of the underlying problems and threats associated with mass migration, than does the traditional state-security model. It challenges national and international authorities to address threats to human security, in order to minimize forced migration and to create the conditions for migration by choice, not necessity.
The article tackles the plural and evolving concepts of security by ana-lysing their relation to human rights and ethics. Although the general impression is that seldom the security discourse is associated with the respect of human rights and ethics, at least from a theoretical point of view security is indeed intertwined with those normative features (first thesis). Moreover, ethics and human rights can be valuably and usefully employed to clarify issues related to security and eventually to suggest improvements in the political management of security issues (second thesis). We argue our theses by focusing on a case study of particular relevance to the present day debate on security: the Syrian asylum seekers headed to Europe. In our ethical and human rights enquiry into this case study we consider multiple as-pects related to security ('de jure' or normative, 'de facto' and perceptive-societal) and the interpretative lens provided by ethics and human rights sheds light on the crucial and manifold centrality played by the notion of human dignity.
The article tackles the plural and evolving concepts of security by ana-lysing their relation to human rights and ethics. Although the general impression is that seldom the security discourse is associated with the respect of human rights and ethics, at least from a theoretical point of view security is indeed intertwined with those normative features (first thesis). Moreover, ethics and human rights can be valuably and usefully employed to clarify issues related to security and eventually to suggest improvements in the political management of security issues (second thesis). We argue our theses by focusing on a case study of particular relevance to the present day debate on security: the Syrian asylum seekers headed to Europe. In our ethical and human rights enquiry into this case study we consider multiple as-pects related to security ('de jure' or normative, 'de facto' and perceptive-societal) and the interpretative lens provided by ethics and human rights sheds light on the crucial and manifold centrality played by the notion of human dignity.
The natural variability of the biotic components, in particular of those showing seasonal cycles, often leads to significant changes of biomass as well as specific composition. This means that the choice of sampling frequency and distribution during the year may be crucial when assessing the ecological quality of a waterbody, starting from the structure of biotic communities. Among the four biological quality elements used to classify the lakes, three of them (phytoplankton, macrophytes and macroinvertebrates) show a marked seasonality and/or a certain degree of spatial variability. This document has the aim to evaluate how the metrics used are sensitive to the natural variability, especially respect to their response to the pressure gradients. The analysis was carried out on data collected during the project and is limited to phytoplankton and macrophytes, because the examination of autumn samples of macroinvertebrates, is still in progress. Regarding phytoplankton, three metrics defined by Italian national legislation (composition indices, chlorophyll and biovolume) were analyzed, comparing the variability due to anthropogenic origin (expressed by the gradient of total phosphorus) with the natural one (seasonal variations on different time scales) and estimating the uncertainty in the classification using different sampling frequencies. In the case of macrophytes, monitoring methods and classification were analyzed respect to their accuracy in assessing if the variability between sites, explained by a different anthropogenic pressure, is actually greater than the variance within the individual lake. In addition, we want to determine if the sampling effort, as established by the monitoring protocols, is adequate to the needs of the classification. Our analysis showed that the variability of phytoplankton metrics reflects the trophic gradient and is more significant than that explained by seasonal fluctuations, demonstrating the robustness of the indicators used. Moreover, the phytoplankton assemblages reveal a high stability in interannual patterns of succession. Conversely, the general formulation of the macrophytic index may need to be redefined to better understand the differences in ecological quality between lakes. Furthermore, as concerns macrophytes, a significant reduction of the sampling effort does not seem to be possible without compromising the quality of classification, while, as regards phytoplankton, it would be acceptable to reduce the number of annual samples from 6 to 4 without compromising the result of the classification, while observing the seasonality, because our analysis suggests that phytoplankton samples concentrated in a single season lead to increased uncertainty in the classification. ; La variabilit? naturale delle componenti biotiche, in modo particolare di quelle che mostrano cicli su base stagionale, porta a cambiamenti spesso significativi della composizione specifica e della biomassa. Questo significa che la scelta della frequenza di campionamento e la distribuzione dei prelievi nel corso dell'anno possono rappresentare dei fattori critici quando si tratta di valutare la qualit? ecologica a partire dalla struttura delle comunit? biotiche. Delle quattro componenti biologiche usate per classificare i laghi, tre (fitoplancton, macrofite e macroinvertebrati) mostrano una spiccata stagionalit? e/o una certa variabilit? spaziale. Il presente documento ? stato redatto con lo scopo di valutare quanto le metriche utilizzate siano sensibili alla variabilit? di origine naturale, soprattutto in relazione alla loro risposta rispetto ai gradienti di pressione. L?analisi ? stata condotta sui dati raccolti nel corso del progetto ed ? limitata al fitoplancton ed alle macrofite, poich? l?esame dei campioni autunnali dei macroinvertebrati ? tuttora in corso. Per quanto riguarda il fitoplancton sono state analizzate tre metriche indicate dalla normativa nazionale (indici di composizione, clorofilla e biovolume), confrontandone la variabilit? di origine antropica (espressa dal gradiente di fosforo totale) con quella naturale (stagionalit? su diverse scale temporali) e stimando l?incertezza nella classificazione con frequenze di prelievo diverse. Nel caso delle macrofite, i metodi di monitoraggio e di classificazione sono stati analizzati rispetto alla loro accuratezza nel valutare se la variabilit? tra ambienti, dovuta alla diversa pressione antropica, sia effettivamente maggiore rispetto alla varianza all?interno del singolo lago. Inoltre, si vuole valutare se lo sforzo di campionamento, previsto dai protocolli di monitoraggio, sia adeguato alle esigenze della classificazione. La nostra analisi ha messo in evidenza che la variabilit? delle metriche fitoplanctoniche rispecchia il gradiente trofico ed ? pi? significativa rispetto a quella spiegata dalle fluttuazioni stagionali, dimostrando la robustezza degli indicatori utilizzati e che le associazioni fitoplanctoniche rilevano un grande stabilit? negli schemi di successione interannuali. Viceversa, la formulazione generale dell?indice macrofitico potrebbe necessitare di una ridefinizione per meglio cogliere le differenze di qualit? ecologica tra i laghi. Inoltre, nel caso delle macrofite, una riduzione significativa dello sforzo di campionamento non pare possibile senza compromettere la qualit? della classificazione, mentre, per quanto riguarda il fitoplancton, sarebbe accettabile ridurre il numero dei prelievi annuali da 6 a 4 senza compromettere il risultato della classificazione, rispettando comunque la stagionalit?, poich? prelievi di fitoplancton concentrati in una sola stagione determinano una maggiore incertezza nella classificazione.
This report summarizes the finding of the InHabit project on the importance of atmospheric nitrogen deposition in affecting the chemical composition of lake water and in eventually altering the biological communities living in them. Previous deliverables (I2d5, Id26 and I2d7) have shown that; 1. in both regions studied in the InHabit project (Piedmont and Sardinia), atmospheric deposition of nitrogen compounds is relevant; 2. the flux of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the ecosystem is markedly larger in Piedmont than in Sardinia; 3. models of the dynamic behavior of nitrogen in forested catchments indicates that Piedmon soils are mainly N-saturated, so that nitrogen carried by atmospheric deposition can be released form forest soil to the surface water; 4. in Sardinia, soil are less saturated, but a part of the deposited nitrogen is still carried to surface water; 5. trend analysis of deposition and stream water revealed that nitrogen deposition is stable or slightly decreasing in recent years, both in atmospheric deposition and in stream water; 6. the importance relative importance of N deposition is relevant for sites in or close to reference conditions; 7. the relationships between environmental variables and organisms belonging to the four biotic communities used to define the lake's ecological quality, according to provisions of the Italian legislation (D.Lgs. 260, November 2010) and the European Water Framework 2000/60 differ depending on the biological quality element considered; 8. phytoplankton community shows the clearer responses: according to the result of multivariate analysis, total nitrogen and ammonium nitrogen are among the most significant factors explaining the relationships among phytoplankton orders, species and environmental variables. In particular, cyanobacteria increased considerably with increasing availability of ammonium nitrogen. Conversely, high concentrations of this compound suppress the development of diatoms. On the basis of those results, which are summarized in this deliverable, we focused on the effect of different levels of nitrogen in lakes with low phosphorus concentration, slightly affected by direct trophic pressure and close to the reference conditions. The comparison between two lakes in Piedmont with low P concentration and high N concentration with two reservoirs in Sardinia with low levels of both nutrients shows that the formers are dominated by diatoms and the latter by dynophytes. Two reservoirs in Piedmont with high N levels are also dominated by diatoms. In spite of the small number of lakes studied, it seems that dynophytes are more fitted to low N lakes, probably because of their ability to use an heterotrophic metabolism, while lakes in reference conditions are generally considered to be dominated by oligotrophic diatoms, Our findings call for deeper studies on reference conditions in the Mediterranean ecoregion, because they suggest that lakes not affected by direct trophic pressure, i.e. reference lakes, may host different diatom communities depending on the amount of nitrogen deposition they receive.
This report presents an analysis of the relationships between environmental variables and organisms belonging to the four biotic communities used to define the lake's ecological quality, according to provisions of the Italian legislation (D.Lgs. 260, November 2010) and the European Water Framework 2000/6. The data analyzed were collected during the sampling surveys carried out within InHabit Project in 13 water bodies, 7 in Piedmont and 6 in Sardinia respectively. In particular, the aim of the study was to evaluate the possible effects of nitrogen on biotic communities. Phytoplankton community shown the clearer responses: according to the result of multivariate analysis, total nitrogen and ammonium nitrogen are among the most significant factors explaining the relationships among phytoplankton orders, species and environmental variables. In particular, cyanobacteria increased considerably with increasing availability of ammonium nitrogen. Conversely, high concentrations of this compound suppress the development of diatoms. Other algal groups show a nonlinear response with respect to nitrogen, with a possible limitation under low levels of nitrogen and an inhibition at higher levels. A comparative analysis, carried out to evaluate the response to the gradient of total phosphorus, shows that this nutrient is not as selective as nitrogen in controlling the structure of the algal assemblage in different environmental conditions. Other biotic communities did not show a clear relationship with nitrogen, but they rather responded to the trophic gradient as a whole: responses by macroinvertebrates seem, especially in the analysis of functional groups, complex and difficult to discriminate, highlighting a possible shifting of the food web towards the presence of large carnivores at high trophic status. Regarding the fish, the results show that nitrogen alone does not seem to be an important controlling factor for the fish communities. However together with the phosphorus, is one of the main elements controlling both biomass and size of the fish fauna, as well as the presence of tolerant, omnivorous or benthofagous species. In conclusion, the results of our analysis highlight the need for a greater emphasis on nitrogen inputs, which, especially in cases of nitrogen carried by atmospheric deposition, may even affect lake ecosystems relatively distant from direct impacts of human activities, thus altering the structure of biotic communities. ; A partire dai dati raccolti con le campagne di campionamento effettuate nell?ambito del progetto InHabit, questo documento presenta un?analisi delle relazioni tra le variabili ambientali e gli organismi appartenenti alle quattro comunit? biotiche utilizzate per la definizione della qualit? ecologica degli ambienti lacustri, secondo quanto previsto dal D.Lgs. 260 del novembre 2010, che recepisce la Direttiva Europea sulle Acque 2000/60. I campionamenti sono stati condotti in 13 ambienti lacustri, 7 in Piemonte e 6 in Sardegna. In particolare, lo scopo del lavoro ? stato valutare i possibili effetti sulla comunit? biotiche di concentrazioni variabili dei composti azotati inclusi tra le variabili considerate. La comunit? che mostra le risposte pi? chiare ? quella fitoplanctonica: come risulta dall?analisi multivariata, sia azoto ammoniacale che azoto totale compaiono tra le variabili significative per spiegare l?ordinamento di ordini e specie fitoplanctoniche. Tra questi, sono soprattutto i cianobatteri che aumentano sensibilmente all?aumentare della disponibilit? di azoto ammonicale. Al contrario, elevate concentrazioni di questo composto deprimono lo sviluppo delle diatomee. Altri gruppi algali mostrano una risposta non lineare rispetto ai composti azotati, con una possibile limitazione a bassi livelli di azoto ed una inibizione a livelli troppo elevati. L?analisi della risposta rispetto al gradiente di fosforo totale, mostra che questo nutriente non ? selettivo come l?azoto nel controllare la struttura delle associazioni algali in diverse condizioni ambientali. Le altre comunit? non hanno mostrato una relazione evidente con i composti azotati, ma, piuttosto, con il gradiente trofico complessivo: le risposte evidenziate dalla fauna macroinvertebrata, sembrano, soprattutto nell?analisi dei gruppi funzionali, complesse e difficili da discriminare, evidenziando un possibile spostamento degli equilibri della rete trofica verso i carnivori in presenza di elevati livelli trofici. Relativamente alla fauna ittica, i risultati mostrano che da solo l?azoto non sembra essere un fattore di controllo importante per la comunit? ittiche. Tuttavia insieme al fosforo, ? uno degli elementi principali a cui si associano positivamente la biomassa e le dimensioni della fauna ittica, nonch? la presenza di specie tolleranti, onnivore o bentofaghe. In conclusione, i risultati della nostra analisi, sottolineano ulteriormente la necessit? di porre una maggiore attenzione agli apporti di azoto, che, soprattutto nei casi di azoto veicolato da deposizioni atmosferiche, potrebbero interessare anche ecosistemi lacustri relativamente distanti da impatti diretti delle attivit? antropiche, alterandone la struttura delle comunit? biotiche.
