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Because they are home to more than half of the world population, and because most of the world economic activity takes place within them, cities are at the forefront of global environmental issues. Land use planning, urban transport and housing policies are now recognized as major tools for the reduction of both greenhouse gases emissions and vulnerability to climate change impacts. So far, however, how to use these tools efficiently remains unclear. At least three main difficulties explain this, and play a key role in urban climate policies analysis. First, urban climate policies are also not developed or implemented in a vacuum; they interact with other policy goals, such as economic competitiveness or social issues, giving rise to both synergies and conflicts. Second, inertia is a key factor when designing optimal climate policies : structural modifications in cities occur slowly over a long time horizon. Some immediate actions are required if cities are to be adapted to a different climate or to help reduce greenhouse gases emissions within a few decades. Third, the evolution of a city depends on several external factors, on which local policy-makers do not generally have much influence : demographic, socio-economic, cultural, political and technological changes will play a major role. This uncertainty has to be taken into account, and climate policies have to be robust against future possible global evolutions is important. These three difficulties are not, however, impossible to overcome, and we will illustrate how integrated city modelling can help address these issues ; Parce qu'elles concentrent plus de la moitié de la population et l'essentiel de l'activité économique mondiales, les villes sont des acteurs majeurs des problématiques environnementales globales. Les politiques de transport, d'urbanisme et de logement sont ainsi reconnus comme des moyens nécessaires et efficaces d'action pour réduire les émissions ainsi que pour réduire la vulnérabilité aux impacts du changement climatique. Jusqu'à présent, malheureusement, il n'y a pas de consensus sur ce qui doit être fait, et encore moins sur comment le faire. Trois difficultés, au moins, expliquent cela. Tout d'abord, les politiques climatiques interagissent avec les autres objectifs des politiques urbaines, comme la compétitivité économique ou les problèmes sociaux, entrainant des synergies et des conflits. Ensuite, les inerties sont un facteur-clef à prendre en compte : les modifications structurelles des villes s'opèrent très lentement. Si l'on veut que les villes soient adaptées au climat de la fin du XXIème siècle, il est indispensable de commencer à agir dès maintenant. Enfin, les effets des politiques urbaines dépendent de nombreux facteurs exogènes, et inconnus au moment où la décision doit être prise : les changements démographiques, socio-économiques culturels politiques et technologiques vont jouer un rôle majeur. Ces trois difficultés ne sont cependant pas insurmontables, et nous illustrerons comment une modélisation intégrée peut permettre de répondre à une partie de ces problèmes

Because they are home to more than half of the world population, and because most of the world economic activity takes place within them, cities are at the forefront of global environmental issues. Land use planning, urban transport and housing policies are now recognized as major tools for the reduction of both greenhouse gases emissions and vulnerability to climate change impacts. So far, however, how to use these tools efficiently remains unclear. At least three main difficulties explain this, and play a key role in urban climate policies analysis. First, urban climate policies are also not developed or implemented in a vacuum; they interact with other policy goals, such as economic competitiveness or social issues, giving rise to both synergies and conflicts. Second, inertia is a key factor when designing optimal climate policies : structural modifications in cities occur slowly over a long time horizon. Some immediate actions are required if cities are to be adapted to a different climate or to help reduce greenhouse gases emissions within a few decades. Third, the evolution of a city depends on several external factors, on which local policy-makers do not generally have much influence : demographic, socio-economic, cultural, political and technological changes will play a major role. This uncertainty has to be taken into account, and climate policies have to be robust against future possible global evolutions is important. These three difficulties are not, however, impossible to overcome, and we will illustrate how integrated city modelling can help address these issues ; Parce qu'elles concentrent plus de la moitié de la population et l'essentiel de l'activité économique mondiales, les villes sont des acteurs majeurs des problématiques environnementales globales. Les politiques de transport, d'urbanisme et de logement sont ainsi reconnus comme des moyens nécessaires et efficaces d'action pour réduire les émissions ainsi que pour réduire la vulnérabilité aux impacts du changement climatique. Jusqu'à présent, malheureusement, il n'y a pas de consensus sur ce qui doit être fait, et encore moins sur comment le faire. Trois difficultés, au moins, expliquent cela. Tout d'abord, les politiques climatiques interagissent avec les autres objectifs des politiques urbaines, comme la compétitivité économique ou les problèmes sociaux, entrainant des synergies et des conflits. Ensuite, les inerties sont un facteur-clef à prendre en compte : les modifications structurelles des villes s'opèrent très lentement. Si l'on veut que les villes soient adaptées au climat de la fin du XXIème siècle, il est indispensable de commencer à agir dès maintenant. Enfin, les effets des politiques urbaines dépendent de nombreux facteurs exogènes, et inconnus au moment où la décision doit être prise : les changements démographiques, socio-économiques culturels politiques et technologiques vont jouer un rôle majeur. Ces trois difficultés ne sont cependant pas insurmontables, et nous illustrerons comment une modélisation intégrée peut permettre de répondre à une partie de ces problèmes

Because they are home to more than half of the world population, and because most of the world economic activity takes place within them, cities are at the forefront of global environmental issues. Land use planning, urban transport and housing policies are now recognized as major tools for the reduction of both greenhouse gases emissions and vulnerability to climate change impacts. So far, however, how to use these tools efficiently remains unclear. At least three main difficulties explain this, and play a key role in urban climate policies analysis. First, urban climate policies are also not developed or implemented in a vacuum; they interact with other policy goals, such as economic competitiveness or social issues, giving rise to both synergies and conflicts. Second, inertia is a key factor when designing optimal climate policies : structural modifications in cities occur slowly over a long time horizon. Some immediate actions are required if cities are to be adapted to a different climate or to help reduce greenhouse gases emissions within a few decades. Third, the evolution of a city depends on several external factors, on which local policy-makers do not generally have much influence : demographic, socio-economic, cultural, political and technological changes will play a major role. This uncertainty has to be taken into account, and climate policies have to be robust against future possible global evolutions is important. These three difficulties are not, however, impossible to overcome, and we will illustrate how integrated city modelling can help address these issues ; Parce qu'elles concentrent plus de la moitié de la population et l'essentiel de l'activité économique mondiales, les villes sont des acteurs majeurs des problématiques environnementales globales. Les politiques de transport, d'urbanisme et de logement sont ainsi reconnus comme des moyens nécessaires et efficaces d'action pour réduire les émissions ainsi que pour réduire la vulnérabilité aux impacts du changement climatique. Jusqu'à ...

Because they are home to more than half of the world population, and because most of the world economic activity takes place within them, cities are at the forefront of global environmental issues. Land use planning, urban transport and housing policies are now recognized as major tools for the reduction of both greenhouse gases emissions and vulnerability to climate change impacts. So far, however, how to use these tools efficiently remains unclear. At least three main difficulties explain this, and play a key role in urban climate policies analysis. First, urban climate policies are also not developed or implemented in a vacuum; they interact with other policy goals, such as economic competitiveness or social issues, giving rise to both synergies and conflicts. Second, inertia is a key factor when designing optimal climate policies : structural modifications in cities occur slowly over a long time horizon. Some immediate actions are required if cities are to be adapted to a different climate or to help reduce greenhouse gases emissions within a few decades. Third, the evolution of a city depends on several external factors, on which local policy-makers do not generally have much influence : demographic, socio-economic, cultural, political and technological changes will play a major role. This uncertainty has to be taken into account, and climate policies have to be robust against future possible global evolutions is important. These three difficulties are not, however, impossible to overcome, and we will illustrate how integrated city modelling can help address these issues ; Parce qu'elles concentrent plus de la moitié de la population et l'essentiel de l'activité économique mondiales, les villes sont des acteurs majeurs des problématiques environnementales globales. Les politiques de transport, d'urbanisme et de logement sont ainsi reconnus comme des moyens nécessaires et efficaces d'action pour réduire les émissions ainsi que pour réduire la vulnérabilité aux impacts du changement climatique. Jusqu'à présent, malheureusement, il n'y a pas de consensus sur ce qui doit être fait, et encore moins sur comment le faire. Trois difficultés, au moins, expliquent cela. Tout d'abord, les politiques climatiques interagissent avec les autres objectifs des politiques urbaines, comme la compétitivité économique ou les problèmes sociaux, entrainant des synergies et des conflits. Ensuite, les inerties sont un facteur-clef à prendre en compte : les modifications structurelles des villes s'opèrent très lentement. Si l'on veut que les villes soient adaptées au climat de la fin du XXIème siècle, il est indispensable de commencer à agir dès maintenant. Enfin, les effets des politiques urbaines dépendent de nombreux facteurs exogènes, et inconnus au moment où la décision doit être prise : les changements démographiques, socio-économiques culturels politiques et technologiques vont jouer un rôle majeur. Ces trois difficultés ne sont cependant pas insurmontables, et nous illustrerons comment une modélisation intégrée peut permettre de répondre à une partie de ces problèmes

The aim of this article is to lay out a series of issues of current concern to researchers in the social sciences, regarding the impact of climate change on the vine and wine sector. The challenge lies in evaluating the cost of transition from one system to another through an integration of the direct and indirect effects of climate change. This adaptation, whether reactive or anticipatory, combines technical and organisational innovations with localisation strategies and institutional changes. Such actions could either try to maintain the existing situation as much as possible or could try to bifurcate towards deep changes, entailing very different costs. Given the multitude of uncertainties at play, not to mention the necessity for continuous adaptation to an ever-changing climate, these costs are hard to quantify. This article will illustrate two sets of measures for wine cultivation adaptation: "no regrets" measures, which offer immediate benefits, and "reversible and flexible" measures, which limit the inertia of wine-cultivating systems. In spite of the challenges, what stands out is the evident re-enforcement resulting from the collaboration between researchers and political and economic actors. In the field of wine cultivation, these collaborations can follow two paths: the study of the diversity of existing wine-growing systems and genetic resources or the possibility of more radical technological and social experimentation.

This paper reviews the potential and barriers of demand-side mitigation options in the agricultural sector based on the recent academic literature and on a survey conducted on a sample of 788 respondents living in France. The mitigation potential of such measures as reducing losses in the food supply chain and shifting diets toward less animal products is estimated to be particularly high, higher, in particular, than supply-side mitigation options. However, to ensure that these measures do not entail a reduction in protein intake, these estimations should consider both caloric and protein units, and take into account the digestibility differentials between protein sources. Our survey shows that people are relatively reluctant to eat more sustainably, preferring to reduce their emissions in other areas such as housing or equipment. This relative reluctance is mainly due to individual perceptions linked to health concerns, taste or habits. Some obstacles could easily be overcome through well-designed policies aiming to, for example, advertise a lower consumption of red meat for health benefits. National governments are, however, rather inactive on this topic, leaving the initiative to the civil society.

This paper investigates the land value creation potential from flood mitigation investments in a theoretical and applied setting, using the urban area of Buenos Aires as a case study. It contributes to the literature on the wider economic benefits of government interventions and the dividends of resilience investments. Using a simple urban economics framework that represents land and housing markets, it finds that not all flood mitigation interventions display the same potential for land value creation: where land is more valuable (city centers for example), the benefits of resilience are higher. The paper also provides ranges for land value creation potential from the flood mitigation works in Buenos Aires under various model specifications. Although the estimates vary largely depending on model parameters and specifications, in many cases the land value creation would be sufficient to justify the investments. This result is robust even in the closed city configuration with conservative flood damage estimates, providing that the parameters remain reasonably close to the values obtained from the calibration. Finally, acknowledging that fully calibrating and running an urban simulation model is data greedy and time intensive—even a simple model as proposed here—this research also proposes reduced form expressions that can provide approximations for land value creation from flood mitigation investments and can be used in operational contexts.

Sustainable and inclusive decarbonisation of European cities is a pre-requisite for achieving carbon neutrality at the EU level. As melting pots and demand hubs, cities are responsible for a majority of greenhouse gas emissions. For a transition towards zero-carbon cities, in the EU as elsewhere, a holistic approach and extensive collaboration is needed that can move city action beyond simply increasing the number of localized low-carbon solutions. This DEEDS Policy Brief outlines key features of EU research and innovation needs and proposes policy measures to promote zero-carbon European cities. ; This Polciy Brief is published as part of the deliverables within the Horizon 2020 DEEDs (Dialogue on European Decarbonisation Pathways) project (GA No. 776646) ; Horizon2020 project DEEDS (Dialogue on European Decarbonisation Pathways) GA No. 776646