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This article aims at offering a critical appraisal of the evolution of Italian cultural heritage law, with respect to issues of colonial and war restitutions and of controls over the import of potentially trafficked cultural property. As Italy is usually considered a "source country" and a victim of historical depredations, a form of "selective blindness" to its colonial past and to its role at the receiving end of both past and current misappropriations of cultural objects is discussed. Some recent restitutions of cultural property taken in times of colonial occupation are also analysed, as signals of a possible change in policy and practice, but highlighting, too, the features of political expediency which influenced them, as well as the many legal and practical obstacles still to be faced by restitution and repatriation claims. Finally, the potential effects of recent (mostly international) inputs on Italy's cultural heritage policy are presented.

Il traffico di beni culturali è un fenomeno complesso che solo in tempi relativamente recenti ha cominciato a essere percepito e affrontato dalla comunità internazionale come un problema propriamente criminale. L'Italia, per converso, ha una lunga tradizione di controllo, anche penale, sulla circolazione di opere d'arte e antichità, ma il sistema sconta alcune risalenti criticità nonché un modello protezionistico di marca spiccatamente nazionalista ormai arretrato rispetto agli impulsi provenienti dalle fonti internazionali, in particolare negli ultimi anni. Dopo ripetuti tentativi abortiti di riforma sistematica dei reati contro il patrimonio culturale, il legislatore è recentemente tornato sul tema con un disegno di legge che, anche in ragione degli obblighi internazionali cui dovrebbe dare attuazione, sembra avere reali prospettive di adozione. Il saggio, dopo una breve introduzione circa le specificità empirico-criminologiche di questo fenomeno criminoso e la più recente evoluzione della normativa internazionale ed europea in materia, si propone di offrire una ricognizione critica delle principali fattispecie volte a reprimere i diversi segmenti del traffico di beni culturali, de jure condito e de jure condendo. Uno specifico approfondimento è dedicato al delitto di esportazione illecita, tradizionale presidio dell'integrità del patrimonio culturale nazionale, ai nodi irrisolti della relativa disciplina e alle potenziali ricadute pratiche della prospettata riforma. ; Cultural property trafficking is a complex phenomenon which, however, has only recently started to be perceived and tackled as a proper criminal problem by the international community. Italy, on the other hand, has a very long tradition of strict regulation of cultural property circulation, including by making extensive use of penal provisions. At the same time, however, Italian criminal law in this field also suffers from some long-standing shortcomings as well as, more recently, from a certain obsolescence of its traditionally protectionist approach, which remains mostly focused on the national heritage in a time when international inputs towards a more solidaristic approach to the protection of the cultural heritage of all humankind are growing. After a series of failed attempts at reform, a draft law is now pending in Parliament which appears likely to achieve adoption in a few months, also due to international obligations Italy has to comply with. The purpose of said reform proposal is a comprehensive review and 'codification' of felonies against cultural heritage. After an introduction to the criminological peculiarities of traffic in cultural property and to the recent evolution of international legislation on this subject, the essay will analyze the main criminal offences aimed at preventing and punishing the many links in the trafficking chain, including by discussing proposed changes. Special attention will be paid to the felony of unlawful export, traditionally conceived as an advanced layer of protection for the integrity of the national cultural heritage, to its present as well as foreseeable shortcomings, and to the possible practical consequences of the intended reform.

Italy has a long tradition of pervasive regulation of its national cultural heritage, including strict control over the export of cultural objects. In contrast to the lack of a definition of "national treasures" which affects EU law, Italian law has striven to achieve an effective definition of the terms "cultural heritage" and "cultural property", and even more to design specific identification rules for cultural objects. Nonetheless, the issues of definition and related protection on the one hand, and identification on the other, do not always go hand in hand in a legal framework which is made even more complex by the coexistence of two separate models of criminal law protection, as well as by the frequency of reforms, the most recent of which directly affected the export of cultural property. So how has the legal definition of "cultural property" changed over the years within the Italian legislation? How do the peculiarities in the construction of criminal offences "muddle" the overall picture? How much has the 2017 reform affected said definition? Finally, the question arises whether and how all this will possibly impact the gap between national and EU approaches to cultural "goods". These issues are the main focus of this article.

La conservazione, protezione e trasmissione alle generazioni future del patrimonio culturale ereditato dal passato ha conosciuto una crescente regolamentazione, a livello sia nazionale sia internazionale, a partire almeno dall'inizio del ventesimo secolo. Oggi temi quali il contrasto al traffico di beni culturali e la restituzione di oggetti illecitamente (o 'ingiustamente') esportati dai Paesi di origine presentano una rilevanza sempre maggiore nell'agenda politica e legislativa di molti Stati e organismi internazionali. Questo saggio vuole indagare come un approccio 'giusletterario' (con un'enfasi sul concetto di Giustizia) al diritto del patrimonio culturale possa giovare al dibattito attualmente in corso, il quale tocca, oltre a questioni giuridiche assai complesse, anche implicazioni simboliche, profondamente radicate e assai sfaccettate, di natura storica, politica e socio-economica, di estrema attualità. Attraverso l'analisi di alcuni rilevanti esempi di letteratura di viaggio e di narrativa del diciottesimo e diciannovesimo secolo, il presente contributo si propone di evidenziare l'importanza di una corretta 'contestualizzazione' per il raggiungimento di 'giuste' soluzioni ai conflitti che sorgono in esito a 'crimini' contro il patrimonio culturale, e di suggerire come un approccio più 'narrativo' a tali conflitti potrebbe favorire un'efficace applicazione di modelli di alternative dispute resolution e, più specificamente, di programmi di giustizia riparativa, ai sempre più numerosi casi di richieste di 'rimpatrio' di beni culturali. ; The conservation, protection and passing to future generations of the cultural heritage received from the past has known a huge increase in both national and international regulation since at least the beginning of the Twentieth Century. Currently, issues such as cultural property trafficking and the return and restitution of cultural objects illegally (or 'unjustly') taken away from their places of origin are of ever increasing relevance in the political and legislative agenda of many countries and international organizations. In this essay, we explore how a 'Law and Literature' – or, better, a 'Justice and Literature' – approach to cultural heritage law could benefit the ongoing debate, which involves, besides very complex legal issues, also deeply rooted and multifaceted symbolic implications of historical, political and socio-economical import and topicality. By discussing some relevant examples of Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century travel literature and narrative, this article suggests the importance of 'contextualization' for a 'just' solution of conflicts arising from 'crimes' against cultural heritage, and how a more 'narrative' approach to said conflicts could pave the way for a successful application of alternative dispute resolution techniques and, more specifically, restorative justice programmes, to questions of repatriation of cultural objects.

Nella prima parte dell'opera vengono analizzati i concetti onore e reputazione, anche in rapporto all'idea di dignità umana, attraverso una ricostruzione dell'evoluzione storica delle fattispecie penali poste a loro tutela, della loro interpretazione dottrinale e giurisprudenziale, del sostrato empirico-sociale che alimenta la ricchezza di significati e implicazioni dei concetti stessi e li collega, altresì, a primarie questioni relative al significato e alla funzione della sanzione penale. L'analisi si estende anche ad altre figure di reato ritenute particolarmente significative sotto tale duplice profilo, quali i c.d. delicta honoris causa, il reati di duello e le fattispecie di oltraggio. Nella seconda parte del volume i beni dell'onore e della reputazione, così come oggi tutelati nell'ordinamento penale italiano, vengono quindi posti a confronto con i loro omologhi, e con la relativa disciplina di tutela, negli ordinamenti di common law (in particolare in quello inglese e in quello americano), nonché con la giurisprudenza della Corte Europea dei Diritti dell'Uomo, alla luce della ricostruzione sistematica precedentemente effettuata. Nel capitolo conclusivo si offre quindi una proposta di ridefinizione dei confini tra onore, reputazione e altri beni della personalità, da un lato, e dignità umana, dall'altro, in una prospettiva politico-criminale di possibile riforma delle fattispecie vigenti e di valorizzazione dell'elemento reputazionale già presente nella sanzione penale, in vista di un migliore sfruttamento delle sue potenzialità general- e special-preventive, oltre che di una migliore coerenza sistematica dell'ordinamento penale. ; The book analyses criminal law boundaries and criminal policy potentialities of such concepts as reputation, dignity, and honour. In the first part of the volume, honour and reputation are discussed, also with reference to the concept of human dignity, through an overview of the historical evolution of relevant criminal offences, of their theoretical as well as judicial interpretation, and of the social and cultural background that shapes their rich and complex meanings, and links honour, dignity and reputation to primary issues pertaining to the function and meaning of punishment. The study also covers other criminal offences which can shed further light on the nature and implications of the above mentioned concepts, such as honour killings and other honour crimes, duelling, and insult to public officials. This approach allows a better understanding of the contacts between honour/reputation, on the one hand, and personal identity, as well as privacy, on the other, particularly through the 'liminal' idea of a 'right to be forgotten' – a topic which is addressed more specifically with reference to the issue of divulging, or publishing anew, an individual's criminal record. The second part of the book focuses on honour and reputation as currently protected under Italian criminal law, in comparison with the quite different approach taken by common law systems (particularly the English and American ones), which not only mainly or exclusively focus on private law remedies, but also define such interests in quite different ways. A comparison with, and a discussion of, the case law of the European Court of Human Rights is also provided. The final chapter proposes a new definition of the boundaries between honour, reputation, personal identity, and privacy, on the one hand, and human dignity, on the other, suggesting a possible reform of the current criminal law of defamation, also with the purposes of improving the coherence of the criminal law system as a whole, and promoting a better and more effective use of the 'reputational' component of criminal sanctions.

La Direttiva 2012/29/UE che istituisce norme minime in materia di diritti, assistenza e protezione delle vittime di reato introduce, in capo a una platea potenzialmente assai ampia di operatori (del diritto, sociali, sanitari) che possano trovarsi a entrare in contatto con 'vittime di reato' il dovere di effettuare una valutazione individuale delle specifiche esigenze di protezione da rischi di vittimizzazione secondaria o ripetuta, intimidazione o ritorsione, che ciascuna vittima possa presentare in concreto. Né la Direttiva stessa, né il legislatore nazionale all'atto della sua trasposizione, hanno dettagliato modalità e soggetti specificamente deputati a effettuare tale valutazione. I ricercatori del progetto internazionale 'Victims and Corporations. Implementation of Directive 2012/29/EU for victims of corporate crimes and corporate violence' hanno elaborato uno specifico insieme di linee guida utili a indirizzare gli operatori nell'individuazione degli elementi da prendere in considerazione nello svolgimento di tale valutazione, con particolare riferimento a una tipologia di soggetti potenzialmente 'vulnerabili', ma spesso neppure percepiti come vittime di reato: le vittime di 'corporate violence', ossia di reati commessi da imprese commerciali nel corso della loro attività lecita, e implicanti danni per la vita, la salute e l'integrità psico-fisica delle persone. ; Directive 2012/29/EU establishing minimum standards on the rights, support and protection of victims of crime sets down the duty to make an individual assessment of each victim's specific needs of protection from secondary and repeat victimisation, from intimidation and from retaliation; a duty which is potentially incumbent on a wide range of professionals (be they legal, social or health workers). Neither the Directive, nor the Italian transposition law, provide details about the specific individuals charged with the task and the specific ways to perform it. The researchers of the international project 'Victims and Corporations. Implementation of Directive 2012/29/EU for victims of corporate crimes and corporate violence' have developed a set of specific guidelines which may help all interested professionals in identifying the elements to be taken into account while performing said individual assessment, with specific reference to a typology of potentially vulnerable people, who, however, often fail even to be recognised as victims. They are the victims of corporate violence, i.e. people having suffered harms to life, health or personal integrity due to crimes committed by corporations in the course of their legitimate activity.

This contribution deals with the issue of the prevention and repression of offences against cultural property and the standards which, in this regard, are emerging at the international level, particularly through the provisions of the UNODC draft "Guidelines on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Responses with respect to Trafficking in Cultural Property". Taking as foundation a broad concept of criminal policy, which encompasses both criminal and non-criminal measures aimed at reducing offences, the essay examines the need for a wide range of heterogeneous social, educational, technical, organizational, administrative, and civil interventions, in order to provide a sound basis for the introduction or reformation (where needed) of criminal law provisions against trafficking in cultural objects and related offences, which, in turn, should remain strictly within the limits of the parsimony principle (extrema ratio), and should be tailored upon the specificities of both offences and offenders. Finally, the need for a variety of criminal sanctions larger than the usual custodial and pecuniary ones is explored, with particular regard to bans, disqualifications, and other forms of adverse publicity.