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Historians believe that between 2,000 and 4,000 Jewish soldiers took part in the struggle for Lithuanian independence in 1919–1923, of whom at least 500 joined the Lithuanian army as volunteers. Although recent research casts doubt on these figures, it is clear that only a small number of Lithuanian Jews joined the fledgling Lithuanian army. One explanation for this could be the deliberate intentions of the leadership of the Lithuanian armed forces to avoid active Jewish involvement, since Jews were not trusted. Despite the atmosphere of mistrust, some Lithuanian Jews chose to join the Lithuanian army. The article tries to establish what motives led to their decision. The discussion may help find answers to the often-raised and still relevant questions about Jewish-Lithuanian political relations during the period of the creation of the modern Lithuanian state.

Book review MAKHOTINA, Ekaterina. Erinnerungen an den Krieg – Krieg der Erinnerungen: Litauen und der Zweite Weltkrieg (Schnittstellen – Studien zum östlichen und südöstlichen Europa, Bd. 4). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co, 2017. 478 S. – ISBN 978-3-525-30090-9

Historians believe that between 2,000 and 4,000 Jewish soldiers took part in the struggle for Lithuanian independence in 1919–1923, of whom at least 500 joined the Lithuanian army as volunteers. Although recent research casts doubt on these figures, it is clear that only a small number of Lithuanian Jews joined the fledgling Lithuanian army. One explanation for this could be the deliberate intentions of the leadership of the Lithuanian armed forces to avoid active Jewish involvement, since Jews were not trusted. Despite the atmosphere of mistrust, some Lithuanian Jews chose to join the Lithuanian army. The article tries to establish what motives led to their decision. The discussion may help find answers to the often-raised and still relevant questions about Jewish-Lithuanian political relations during the period of the creation of the modern Lithuanian state.

Historians believe that between 2,000 and 4,000 Jewish soldiers took part in the struggle for Lithuanian independence in 1919–1923, of whom at least 500 joined the Lithuanian army as volunteers. Although recent research casts doubt on these figures, it is clear that only a small number of Lithuanian Jews joined the fledgling Lithuanian army. One explanation for this could be the deliberate intentions of the leadership of the Lithuanian armed forces to avoid active Jewish involvement, since Jews were not trusted. Despite the atmosphere of mistrust, some Lithuanian Jews chose to join the Lithuanian army. The article tries to establish what motives led to their decision. The discussion may help find answers to the often-raised and still relevant questions about Jewish-Lithuanian political relations during the period of the creation of the modern Lithuanian state.

Historians believe that between 2,000 and 4,000 Jewish soldiers took part in the struggle for Lithuanian independence in 1919–1923, of whom at least 500 joined the Lithuanian army as volunteers. Although recent research casts doubt on these figures, it is clear that only a small number of Lithuanian Jews joined the fledgling Lithuanian army. One explanation for this could be the deliberate intentions of the leadership of the Lithuanian armed forces to avoid active Jewish involvement, since Jews were not trusted. Despite the atmosphere of mistrust, some Lithuanian Jews chose to join the Lithuanian army. The article tries to establish what motives led to their decision. The discussion may help find answers to the often-raised and still relevant questions about Jewish-Lithuanian political relations during the period of the creation of the modern Lithuanian state.

During the Great War, the period 1914 to 1915 was one of the most intense stages of interactionby Lithuanian society with daily life of the war, and at the same time the most active stage inmilitary action in the future Lithuania. While many men were called up into the ranks of theImperial Russian army, most of the remaining population ended up under the military authorities,experienced the requisition of their personal property, and observed (at first in the rear)intense military movements to and fro. This article looks at how the change in the front line,and the successes and failures of the armies of the Romanov Empire, contributed to the changein the image of the Russian army in the Lithuanian discourse. Features of the change arerevealed in the article by analysing both the line taken by the official press during the initialperiod of the Great War, and the assessments of the Russian army that appeared in individualreflections (diaries and memoirs). It asks how the image of the Russian army changed duringthis period, and why.KEY WORDS: First World War, Imperial Russian army, army image, discourse, war propaganda,war representation, war reception.

During the Great War, the period 1914 to 1915 was one of the most intense stages of interactionby Lithuanian society with daily life of the war, and at the same time the most active stage inmilitary action in the future Lithuania. While many men were called up into the ranks of theImperial Russian army, most of the remaining population ended up under the military authorities,experienced the requisition of their personal property, and observed (at first in the rear)intense military movements to and fro. This article looks at how the change in the front line,and the successes and failures of the armies of the Romanov Empire, contributed to the changein the image of the Russian army in the Lithuanian discourse. Features of the change arerevealed in the article by analysing both the line taken by the official press during the initialperiod of the Great War, and the assessments of the Russian army that appeared in individualreflections (diaries and memoirs). It asks how the image of the Russian army changed duringthis period, and why.

During the Great War, the period 1914 to 1915 was one of the most intense stages of interactionby Lithuanian society with daily life of the war, and at the same time the most active stage inmilitary action in the future Lithuania. While many men were called up into the ranks of theImperial Russian army, most of the remaining population ended up under the military authorities,experienced the requisition of their personal property, and observed (at first in the rear)intense military movements to and fro. This article looks at how the change in the front line,and the successes and failures of the armies of the Romanov Empire, contributed to the changein the image of the Russian army in the Lithuanian discourse. Features of the change arerevealed in the article by analysing both the line taken by the official press during the initialperiod of the Great War, and the assessments of the Russian army that appeared in individualreflections (diaries and memoirs). It asks how the image of the Russian army changed duringthis period, and why.

During the Great War, the period 1914 to 1915 was one of the most intense stages of interactionby Lithuanian society with daily life of the war, and at the same time the most active stage inmilitary action in the future Lithuania. While many men were called up into the ranks of theImperial Russian army, most of the remaining population ended up under the military authorities,experienced the requisition of their personal property, and observed (at first in the rear)intense military movements to and fro. This article looks at how the change in the front line,and the successes and failures of the armies of the Romanov Empire, contributed to the changein the image of the Russian army in the Lithuanian discourse. Features of the change arerevealed in the article by analysing both the line taken by the official press during the initialperiod of the Great War, and the assessments of the Russian army that appeared in individualreflections (diaries and memoirs). It asks how the image of the Russian army changed duringthis period, and why.

During the Great War, the period 1914 to 1915 was one of the most intense stages of interactionby Lithuanian society with daily life of the war, and at the same time the most active stage inmilitary action in the future Lithuania. While many men were called up into the ranks of theImperial Russian army, most of the remaining population ended up under the military authorities,experienced the requisition of their personal property, and observed (at first in the rear)intense military movements to and fro. This article looks at how the change in the front line,and the successes and failures of the armies of the Romanov Empire, contributed to the changein the image of the Russian army in the Lithuanian discourse. Features of the change arerevealed in the article by analysing both the line taken by the official press during the initialperiod of the Great War, and the assessments of the Russian army that appeared in individualreflections (diaries and memoirs). It asks how the image of the Russian army changed duringthis period, and why.

This paper deals with concepts of images of ethnic minorities in the ideologies of the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, the Latvian Aizsargi, and the Estonian Kaitseliit, with the aim of identifying factors that predetermined qualitative changes in these images in the different periods of activity of these paramilitary organisations. In addition, possible functions of the images of ethnic minorities in the ideologies of the Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian riflemen are analysed. The study is based on the presumption that, in the ideologies of the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, the Latvian Aizsargi and the Estonian Kaitseliit, the formation of the images of ethnic minorities in the different periods of activity of these organisations (the struggles for independence, the formation of the parliamentary system, authoritarian coups and presidential power, and national political crises) was predetermined by the practice of attaching ethnic groups to the relative camps of allies or foes, and by the policy of dividing ethnic minorities into groups of 'reliable' and 'unreliable'.

This paper deals with concepts of images of ethnic minorities in the ideologies of the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, the Latvian Aizsargi, and the Estonian Kaitseliit, with the aim of identifying factors that predetermined qualitative changes in these images in the different periods of activity of these paramilitary organisations. In addition, possible functions of the images of ethnic minorities in the ideologies of the Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian riflemen are analysed. The study is based on the presumption that, in the ideologies of the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, the Latvian Aizsargi and the Estonian Kaitseliit, the formation of the images of ethnic minorities in the different periods of activity of these organisations (the struggles for independence, the formation of the parliamentary system, authoritarian coups and presidential power, and national political crises) was predetermined by the practice of attaching ethnic groups to the relative camps of allies or foes, and by the policy of dividing ethnic minorities into groups of 'reliable' and 'unreliable'.

This paper deals with concepts of images of ethnic minorities in the ideologies of the LithuanianRiflemen's Union, the Latvian Aizsargi, and the Estonian Kaitseliit, with the aim of identifyingfactors that predetermined qualitative changes in these images in the different periods of activityof these paramilitary organisations. In addition, possible functions of the images of ethnicminorities in the ideologies of the Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian riflemen are analysed. Thestudy is based on the presumption that, in the ideologies of the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union,the Latvian Aizsargi and the Estonian Kaitseliit, the formation of the images of ethnic minoritiesin the different periods of activity of these organisations (the struggles for independence,the formation of the parliamentary system, authoritarian coups and presidential power, andnational political crises) was predetermined by the practice of attaching ethnic groups to therelative camps of allies or foes, and by the policy of dividing ethnic minorities into groups of'reliable' and 'unreliable'.Key words : paramilitarism, Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, Aizsargi, Kaitseliit, ideology, imagesof ethnic minorities. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15181/ahuk.v28i0.929

This paper deals with concepts of images of ethnic minorities in the ideologies of the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, the Latvian Aizsargi, and the Estonian Kaitseliit, with the aim of identifying factors that predetermined qualitative changes in these images in the different periods of activity of these paramilitary organisations. In addition, possible functions of the images of ethnic minorities in the ideologies of the Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian riflemen are analysed. The study is based on the presumption that, in the ideologies of the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, the Latvian Aizsargi and the Estonian Kaitseliit, the formation of the images of ethnic minorities in the different periods of activity of these organisations (the struggles for independence, the formation of the parliamentary system, authoritarian coups and presidential power, and national political crises) was predetermined by the practice of attaching ethnic groups to the relative camps of allies or foes, and by the policy of dividing ethnic minorities into groups of 'reliable' and 'unreliable'.

This paper deals with concepts of images of ethnic minorities in the ideologies of the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, the Latvian Aizsargi, and the Estonian Kaitseliit, with the aim of identifying factors that predetermined qualitative changes in these images in the different periods of activity of these paramilitary organisations. In addition, possible functions of the images of ethnic minorities in the ideologies of the Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian riflemen are analysed. The study is based on the presumption that, in the ideologies of the Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, the Latvian Aizsargi and the Estonian Kaitseliit, the formation of the images of ethnic minorities in the different periods of activity of these organisations (the struggles for independence, the formation of the parliamentary system, authoritarian coups and presidential power, and national political crises) was predetermined by the practice of attaching ethnic groups to the relative camps of allies or foes, and by the policy of dividing ethnic minorities into groups of 'reliable' and 'unreliable'.