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This paper uses structural analogies to competing political philosophies of human society as a heuristic tool to differentiate between ecological theories and to bring out new aspects of apparently well-known classics of ecological scholarship. These two different areas of knowledge have in common that their objects are 'societies', i.e. units composed of individuals, and that contradictory and competing theories about these supra-individual units exist. The benefit of discussing ecological theories in terms of their analogies to political philosophies, in this case liberalism, democratism and conservatism, consists in the fact that political philosophies show clear differences and particularities as regards their approach to the concepts of individuality and intentional action. The method therefore helps to expose peculiarities of ecological theories that are usually considered canonical (e.g. Clements, Gleason), as well as hybrid forms (E. P. Odum), and to differentiate between two different types of theories about functional wholes. The basis of this method is the constitutional-theoretical premise that modern paradigms of socialization structure the ecological discourse.

Um die Uneindeutigkeit des Ökosystembegriffs zu erklären und Ökosystemtheorien voneinander abzugrenzen, wird eine Typisierung für Theorien synökologischer Einheiten vorgeschlagen. Dazu werden drei ideale Theorietypen überindividueller Organisationsform konstruiert: 'Gesellschaft unabhängiger Einzelner', 'organismische Gemeinschaft' und 'maschinenhafte Gemeinschaft'. Diese werden aus heuristischen Gründen auf Basis der 'Strukturkerne' der politischen Philosophien des Liberalismus, des Konservatismus und der Demokratie entwickelt. Durch die von diesen drei idealen Typen geleitete vergleichende Diskussion lassen sich sehr gut sowohl die Besonderheiten der jeweiligen synökologischen Theorie als auch die Differenzen zwischen Ökosystemtheorien zeigen. ; In order to illuminate the ambiguity of the ecosystem concept and to distinguish ecosystem theories a typology for theories of synecological units is proposed. Three idealtypical forms of supra-individual organisation are constructed: 'association of independent individuals', 'organismic community', 'machine-like community'. For heuristic reasons these idealtypes are developed based on the 'structural core' of political philosophies, namely of liberalism, konservatism and democracy. By a comparative study guided by these three idealtypes both the peculiarities of the respective synecological theory and the substantial differences between ecosystem theories can be shown.

A history of urban gardens in Europe / Nazila Keshavarz and Simon Bell -- Part I. Urban allotment gardens in the European political, planning and legal sphere -- 2.The idea of allotment gardens and the role of spatial and urban planning / Matthias Drilling, Renata Giedych and Lidia Ponizy -- 3.Grassroots gardening movements: towards cooperative forms of green urban development? / Byron Ioannou, Nerea Moran, Martin Sondermann, Chiara Certoma and Michael Hardman -- 4.Political -economic urban restructuring: urban allotment gardens in the entrepreneurial city / Efrat Eizenberg, Simone Tappert, Nicola Thomas and Andis Zilans -- Part. II The ecology of urban allotment gardens -- 5.Ecosystem services from urban gardens / Johannes Langemeyer, Monika Joanna Latkowska and Erik Nicolas Gomez-Baggethun -- 6.Environmental pressures on and the status of urban allotments / Andrew S. Hursthouse and Teresa E. Leitao -- 7.Lessons learned: indicators and good practice for an environmentally-friendly urban garden / Annette Voigt and Teresa E. Leitao -- Part III. Spatial design aspects of urban allotment gardens -- 8.The position of urban allotment gardens within the urban fabric / Sandra Costa, Runrid Fox-Kamper, Russell Good and Ivana Sentic -- 9.Emergent approaches to urban gardening / Silvio Caputo, Eva Schwab and Kostas Tsiambaos -- 10. Allotment gardens as a challenge for an urban designer / Antoine Zammit and Ina Suklje-Erjavec -- Part IV. The social sphere of urban allotment gardens -- 11.Urban allotment garden: a case for place-making / Susan Noori and Mary Benson -- 12.Motivations behind urban gardening: 'here I feel alive' / Laura Calvet-Mir, Hug March, Helena Nordh, Jeanne Pourias and Barbora Cakovska -- 13.Building trust and social skills in urban allotment gardens / Tim Delshammar, Maria Partalidou and Rhys Evans