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AbstractIntroductionSouth African men are underrepresented in HIV testing and treatment services. Secondary distribution of oral HIV self‐test (HIVST) kits by women living with HIV (WLHIV) to their male partners (i.e. index partner HIVST) may increase men's testing and treatment but has been understudied.MethodsBetween March and July 2021, we evaluated the effectiveness of index partner HIVST versus the standard of care (SOC) (invitations for men's facility‐based testing) on men's testing in a 1:1 randomized control trial. Eligibility criteria included: WLHIV; ≥18 years of age; attending one of four high‐density rural clinics; have a working cell phone; and self‐reported having a primary male partner of unknown serostatus. The primary outcome was the proportion of WLHIV reporting that her partner tested for HIV within 3 months after enrolment.ResultsWe enrolled 180 WLHIV and 176 completed an endline survey (mean age = 35 years, 15% pregnant, 47% unmarried or non‐cohabiting). In the HIVST arm, 78% of male partners were reported to have tested for HIV versus 55% in SOC (RR = 1.41; 95% CI = 1.14–1.76). In the HIVST arm, nine men were reactive with HIVST (14% positivity), six were confirmed HIV positive with standard testing (67%) and all of those started antiretroviral therapy (ART), and four HIV‐negative men started pre‐exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) (5%). In SOC, six men were diagnosed with HIV (12% positivity), 100% started ART and seven HIV‐negative men started PrEP (16%). One case of verbal intimate partner violence was reported in the HIVST arm.ConclusionsSecondary distribution of HIVST to partners of WLHIV was acceptable and effective for improving HIV testing among men in rural South Africa in our pilot study. Interventions are needed to link reactive HIVST users to confirmatory testing and ART.

BACKGROUND: There is unmet need for family planning in Rwanda. We previously developed an evidence-based couples' family planning counseling (C)FPC program in the capital city that combines: (1) fertility goal-based family planning counseling with a focus on long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) for couples wishing to delay pregnancy; (2) health center capacity building for provision of LARC methods, and (3) LARC promotion by community health workers (CHW) trained in community-based provision of oral and injectable contraception. From 2015 to 2016, this service was integrated into eight government health centers in Kigali, reaching 6072 clients and resulting in 5743 LARC insertions. METHODS: From May to July 2016, we conducted cross-sectional health center needs assessments in 30 rural health centers using surveys, key informant interviews, logbook extraction, and structured observations. The assessment focused on the infrastructure, materials, and human resources needed for LARC demand creation and provision. RESULTS: Few nurses had received training in LARC insertion [41% implant, 27% intrauterine device (IUD)]. All health centers reported working with CHW, but none trained in LARC promotion. Health centers had limited numbers of IUDs (median 10), implants (median 39), functional gynecological exam tables (median 2), and lamps for viewing the cervix (median 0). Many did not have backup power supplies (40%). Most health centers reported no funding partners for family planning assistance (60%). Per national guidelines, couples' voluntary HIV counseling and testing (CVCT) was provided at the first antenatal visit at all clinics, reaching over 80% of pregnant women and their partners. However, only 10% of health centers had integrated family planning and HIV services. CONCLUSIONS: To successfully implement (C)FPC and LARC services in rural health centers across Rwanda, material and human resource capacity for LARC provision will need to be greatly strengthened through equipment (gynecological exam tables, ...

With the expansion of couples' voluntary HIV counseling and testing (CVCT) in urban Zambia, there is a growing need to evaluate CVCT provider trainings to ensure that couples are receiving quality counseling and care. We evaluated provider knowledge scores, pre- and post-training and predictors of pre- and post-training test scores. Providers operating in 67 government clinics in four Copperbelt Province cities were trained from 2008 to 2013 in three domains: counseling, rapid HIV laboratory testing and data management. Trainees received pre- and post-training tests on domain-specific topics. Pre- and post-training test scores were tabulated by provider demographics and training type, and paired t-tests evaluated differences in pre- and post-training test scores. Multivariable ANCOVA determined predictors of pre- and post-training test scores. We trained 1226 providers, and average test scores increased from 68.8% pre-training to 83.8% post-training (p < 0.001). Test scores increased significantly for every demographic group and training type (p < 0.001) with one exception—test scores did not significantly increase for those receiving counseling or data management training who had less than a high school education. In multivariable analysis, higher educational level and having a medical background were predictive of a higher pre-test score; higher pre-test scores and having a medical background were predictive of higher post-test scores. Pre- and post-test assessments are critical to ensure quality services, particularly as task-shifting from medical to lay staff becomes more common. Assessments showed that our CVCT trainings are successful at increasing knowledge, and that those with lower education may benefit from repeat trainings.

BACKGROUND: Integrating family planning interventions with HIV studies in developing countries has been shown to prevent mother-to-child HIV transmission and simultaneously reduce HIV and unintended pregnancy in high-risk populations. As part of a prospective cohort study on HIV incidence and risk factors in Zambian women having unprotected sex, we also offered family planning counseling and immediate access to long-acting reversible contraceptives. Although long-acting reversible contraceptives are the most effective form of contraception, many Zambian women are limited to oral or injectable methods due to lack of knowledge or method availability. This project offers single mothers enrolled in a cohort study information about and access to long-acting reversible contraceptives at enrollment and at each follow-up visit. OBJECTIVE: This study evaluates how fertility intentions affect long-acting reversible contraceptive utilization in HIV-negative single mothers in Zambia. Our primary outcome was long-acting reversible contraceptive use throughout study participation. We also estimated rates of long-acting reversible contraceptive uptake and discontinuation. We specifically studied single mothers because they are at high risk for unintended pregnancy, which can have significant negative ramifications on their financial, social and psychological circumstances. STUDY DESIGN: From 2012–2017, Zambia Emory HIV Research Project recruited 521 HIV-negative single mothers between the ages of 18–45 years from government clinics in Lusaka and Ndola, Zambia's two largest cities. Participants were followed every three months for up to five years. At each visit, we discussed fertility goals and contraceptive options and offered a long-acting reversible method to any woman who was not pregnant or already using a long-acting reversible or permanent contraceptive method. Data was collected on demographic factors, sexual behavior and reproductive history. Multivariable logistic regression was used to model baseline fertility ...

Background Heterosexual couples contribute to most new HIV infections in areas of generalized HIV epidemics in sub-Saharan Africa. After Couples' Voluntary HIV Counseling and Testing (CVCT), heterosexual concordant HIV negative couples (CNC) in cohabiting unions contribute to approximately 47% of residual new infections in couples. These infections are attributed to concurrent sexual partners, a key driver of the HIV epidemic in Zambia. Methods/design Ten Zambian government clinics in two of the largest cities were randomized in matched pairs to a Strengthening Our Vows (SOV) intervention or a Good Health Package (GHP) comparison arm. SOV addressed preventing HIV infection from concurrent partners and protecting spouses after exposures outside the relationship. GHP focused on handwashing; water chlorination; household deworming; and screening for hypertension, diabetes and schistosomiasis. CNC were referred from CVCT services in government clinics. Follow-up includes post-intervention questionnaires and outcome assessments through 60 months. Longitudinal outcomes of interest include self-report and laboratory markers of condomless sex with outside partners and reported sexual agreements. We present baseline characteristics and factors associated with study arm and reported risk using descriptive statistics. Results The mean age of men was 32 and 26 for women. On average, couples cohabited for 6 years and had 2 children. Baseline analyses demonstrated some failures of randomization by study arm which will be considered in future primary analyses of longitudinal data. An HIV/STI risk factor composite was not different in the two study arms. Almost one-quarter of couples had an HIV risk factor at baseline. Discussion In preparation for future biomedical and behavioral interventions in sub-Saharan Africa, it is critical to understand and decrease HIV risk within CNC.

BACKGROUND: Heterosexual couples contribute to most new HIV infections in areas of generalized HIV epidemics in sub-Saharan Africa. After Couples' Voluntary HIV Counseling and Testing (CVCT), heterosexual concordant HIV negative couples (CNC) in cohabiting unions contribute to approximately 47% of residual new infections in couples. These infections are attributed to concurrent sexual partners, a key driver of the HIV epidemic in Zambia. METHODS/DESIGN: Ten Zambian government clinics in two of the largest cities were randomized in matched pairs to a Strengthening Our Vows (SOV) intervention or a Good Health Package (GHP) comparison arm. SOV addressed preventing HIV infection from concurrent partners and protecting spouses after exposures outside the relationship. GHP focused on handwashing; water chlorination; household deworming; and screening for hypertension, diabetes and schistosomiasis. CNC were referred from CVCT services in government clinics. Follow-up includes post-intervention questionnaires and outcome assessments through 60 months. Longitudinal outcomes of interest include self-report and laboratory markers of condomless sex with outside partners and reported sexual agreements. We present baseline characteristics and factors associated with study arm and reported risk using descriptive statistics. RESULTS: The mean age of men was 32 and 26 for women. On average, couples cohabited for 6 years and had 2 children. Baseline analyses demonstrated some failures of randomization by study arm which will be considered in future primary analyses of longitudinal data. An HIV/STI risk factor composite was not different in the two study arms. Almost one-quarter of couples had an HIV risk factor at baseline. DISCUSSION: In preparation for future biomedical and behavioral interventions in sub-Saharan Africa, it is critical to understand and decrease HIV risk within CNC.

Background: Long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) is highly effective at preventing pregnancy. However, in sub-Saharan Africa, LARC education for clients is relatively limited and providers are often not skilled in their insertion. Before 2009, only 1% of family planning clients in Rwanda received an LARC. Materials and Methods: We trained Rwandan government clinic nurses to promote, insert, and remove copper intrauterine devices (IUDs) and hormonal implants. Training started in two large urban clinics, and those nurses trained three successive waves of clinic nurses. Initial LARC promotions were clinic based, but in 2015 included community-based promotions in eight clinics. We compare IUD and implant insertions by year and clinic and discuss implementation successes/obstacles. Results: From 2009 to 2016, 222 nurses from 21 government clinics were LARC trained. The nurses performed 36,588 LARC insertions (19% IUD, 81% implant). LARC insertions increased over time, peaking at 8,897 in 2013. However, in 2014, the number dropped to 4,018 after closure of one large clinic, funding discontinuation, and supply stock-outs. With new funding in 2015, insertions increased reaching 8,218 in 2016. Catholic and non-Catholic and rural and urban clinics performed similarly, whereas clinics affiliated with community-based promotions performed better (p > 0.05). Between 2012 and 2014, 13% of family planning initiators chose the implant and 4% the IUD. Conclusions: LARC supply–demand services increased the proportion of family planning initiators choosing LARC to 17%. Challenges included inconsistent funding, irregular supplies, and staff turnover. Rural and Catholic clinics performed as well as urban and non-Catholic clinics. Concerted efforts to improve IUD uptake are needed.

BACKGROUND: Few family planning programs in Africa base demand creation and service delivery on theoretical models. Motivational interviewing (MI) is a counseling modality that facilitates reflection on the benefits and disadvantages of a health outcome to encourage behavior change. OBJECTIVES: We evaluate a couples-focused joint family planning and HIV counseling intervention using motivational interviewing (MI) to enhance uptake of long acting reversible contraception (LARC, Paragard copper intra-uterine device (IUD) or Jadelle hormonal implant) among Rwandan couples. STUDY DESIGN: In this experimental study, couples receiving care at eight government health clinics in Kigali, the capital city, were referred from a parent study of couples that did not want more children or wanted to wait at least two years for their next pregnancy. LARC methods were offered on site following joint HIV testing and family planning counseling. At the first follow-up visit one month after enrollment in the parent study, couples who had not yet chosen a LARC method were interviewed separately using MI, then brought together and again offered LARC. RESULTS: Following MI, 78/229 (34%) couples requested a LARC method (68 implant and 10 IUD). LARC uptake after MI was associated with the woman being Catholic (vs. Protestant/Muslim/Other, aOR 2.87, 95% C.I. 1.19-6.96, p=0.019) or having an income (vs. no income aOR 2.54, 95% C.I. 1.12-5.73, p=0.025); the couple having previously discussed LARC (aOR 8.38, 95% C.I. 2.54-27.59, p=0.0005); either partner believing that unplanned pregnancy was likely with their current method (aOR 6.67, 95% C.I. 2.77-16.11, p<0.0001) or that they might forget to take or make an appointment for their current method (aOR 4.04, 95% C.I. 1.32-12.34, p=0.014). Neither partner mentioning that condoms also prevent HIV/sexually transmitted infection (STI) was associated with LARC uptake (aOR 2.86, 95% C.I. 1.17-7.03, p=0.022), as was the woman citing long-term duration of action of the implant as an advantage (aOR ...

Introduction: Most HIV infections in Africa are acquired by married/cohabiting adults and WHO recommends couple's voluntary HIV counseling and testing (CVCT) for prevention. The handover from NGO-sponsored weekend CVCT to government-sponsored services in routine weekday antenatal care (ANC) and individual voluntary testing and counseling (VCT) services in Zambia's two largest cities from 2009–2015 is described. Methods: Government clinic counselors were trained to provide CVCT, and along with community health workers they promoted CVCT services in their clinic and surrounding areas. When client volume exceeded the capacity of on-duty staff in ANC and VCT, non-governmental organization (NGO) subsidies were offered for overtime pay. Results: Implementation of routine CVCT services varied greatly by clinic and city. The 12 highest volume clinics were examined further, while 13 clinics had CVCT numbers that were too low to warrant further investigation. In Lusaka, the proportion of pregnant women whose partners were tested rose from 2.6% in 2009 to a peak of 26.2% in 2012 and 24.8% in 2015. Corresponding reports in Ndola were 2.0% in 2009, 17.0% in 2012 and 14.5% in 2015. Obstacles to CVCT included: limited space and staffing, competing priorities, record keeping not adapted for couples, and few resources for promotion and increasing male involvement. Conflicting training models for 'partner testing' with men and women separately vs. CVCT with joint post-test counseling led to confusion in reporting to district health authorities. Discussion: A focused and sustained effort will be required to reach a meaningful number of couples with CVCT to prevent heterosexual and perinatal HIV transmission. Establishing targets and timelines, funding for dedicated and appropriately trained staff, adoption of standardized data recording instruments with couple-level indicators, and expansion of community and clinic-based promotions using proven models are recommended.

Background: Though the Rwandan Ministry of Health (MOH) prioritizes the scale-up of postpartum family planning (PPFP) programs, uptake and sustainability of PPFP services in Rwanda are low. Furthermore, highly effective long-acting reversible contraceptive method use (LARC), key in effective PPFP programs, is specifically low in Rwanda. We previously pilot tested a supply-demand intervention which significantly increased the use of postpartum LARC (PPLARC) in Rwandan government clinics. In this protocol, we use an implementation science framework to test whether our intervention is adaptable to large-scale implementation, cost-effective, and sustainable. Methods: In a type 2 effectiveness-implementation hybrid study, we will evaluate the impact of our PPFP intervention on postpartum LARC (PPLARC) uptake in a clinic-randomized trial in 12 high-volume health facilities in Kigali, Rwanda. We will evaluate this hybrid study using the RE-AIM framework. The independent effectiveness of each PPFP demand creation strategy on PPLARC uptake among antenatal clinic attendees who later deliver in a study facility will be estimated. To assess sustainability, we will assess the intervention adoption, implementation, and maintenance. Finally, we will evaluate intervention cost-effectiveness and develop a national costed implementation plan. Discussion: Adaptability and sustainability within government facilities are critical aspects of our proposal, and the MOH and other local stakeholders will be engaged from the outset. We expect to deliver PPFP counseling to over 21,000 women/couples during the project period. We hypothesize that the intervention will significantly increase the number of stakeholders engaged, PPFP providers and promoters trained, couples/clients receiving information about PPFP, and PPLARC uptake comparing intervention versus standard of care. We expect PPFP client satisfaction will be high. Finally, we also hypothesize that the intervention will be cost-saving relative to the standard of care. This ...

OBJECTIVE: To present the incremental cost from the payer's perspective and effectiveness of couples' family planning counseling (CFPC) with long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) access integrated with couples' voluntary HIV counseling and testing (CVCT) in Zambia. This integrated program is evaluated incremental to existing individual HIV counseling and testing and family planning services. DESIGN: Implementation and modeling SETTING: 55 government health facilities in Zambia SUBJECTS: Patients in government health facilities INTERVENTION: Community health workers and personnel promoted and delivered integrated CVCT+CFPC from March 2013-September 2015. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: We report financial costs of actual expenditures during integrated program implementation and outcomes of CVCT+CFPC uptake and LARC uptake. We model primary outcomes of cost-per-: adult HIV infections averted by CVCT, unintended pregnancies averted by LARC, couple-years of protection against unintended pregnancy by LARC, and perinatal HIV infections averted by LARC. Costs and outcomes were discounted at 3%/year. RESULTS: Integrated program costs were $3,582,186 (2015 USD), 82,231 couples received CVCT+CFPC, and 56,409 women received LARC insertions. The program averted an estimated 7,165 adult HIV infections at $384/adult HIV infection averted over a 5-year time horizon. The program also averted 62,265 unintended pregnancies and was cost-saving for measures of cost-per-unintended pregnancy averted, cost-per-couple-year of protection against unintended pregnancy, and cost-per-perinatal HIV infection averted assuming 3 years of LARC use. CONCLUSIONS: Our intervention was cost-savings for CFPC outcomes and CVCT was effective and affordable in Zambia. Integrated couples-focused HIV and family planning was feasible, affordable, and leveraged HIV and unintended pregnancy prevention.

INTRODUCTION: Postpartum (PP) family planning is critical to reduce maternal-child mortality, abortion, and unintended pregnancy. As in most countries, the majority of PP women in Rwanda have an unmet need for postpartum family planning (PPFP). In particular, increasing use of the highly effective PP long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods (the intrauterine device [IUD] and implant) is a national priority. We developed a muti-level intervention to increase supply and demand for PPFP services in Kigali, Rwanda. METHODS: We implemented our intervention (which included PPFP promotional counseling for clients, training for providers, and Ministry of Health stakeholder involvement) in six government health facilities from Aug 2017-Oct 2018. While increasing knowledge and uptake of the IUD was a primary objective, all contraceptive method options were discussed and made available. Here, we report a secondary analysis of PP implant uptake and present already published data on PP IUD uptake for reference. RESULTS: Over a 15-month implementation period, 12,068 women received PPFP educational counseling and delivered at a study facility. Of these women, 1252 chose a PP implant (10.4% uptake) and 3372 chose a PPIUD (27.9% uptake). On average providers at our intervention facilities inserted 83.5 PP implants/month and 224.8 PPIUDs/month. Prior to our intervention, 30 PP implants/month and 8 PPIUDs/month were inserted at our selected facilities. Providers reported high ease of LARC insertion, and clients reported minimal insertion anxiety and pain. CONCLUSIONS: PP implant and PPIUD uptake significantly increased after implementation of our multi-level intervention. PPFP methods were well-received by clients and providers.

BACKGROUND: When integrated with couples' voluntary HIV counselling and testing (CVCT), family planning including long acting reversible contraceptives (LARC) addresses prongs one and two of prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT). METHODS: In this observational study, we enrolled equal numbers of HIV concordant and discordant couples in four rural and four urban clinics, with two Catholic and two non-Catholic clinics in each area. Eligible couples were fertile, not already using a LARC method, and wished to limit or delay fertility for at least 2 years. We provided CVCT and fertility goal-based family planning counselling with the offer of LARC and conducted multivariate analysis of clinic, couple, and individual predictors of LARC uptake. RESULTS: Of 1290 couples enrolled, 960 (74%) selected LARC: Jadelle 5-year implant (37%), Implanon 3-year implant (26%), or copper intrauterine device (IUD) (11%). Uptake was higher in non-Catholic clinics (85% vs. 63% in Catholic clinics, p < 0.0001), in urban clinics (82% vs. 67% in rural clinics, p < 0.0001), and in HIV concordant couples (79% vs. 70% of discordant couples, p = .0005). Religion of the couple was unrelated to clinic religious affiliation, and uptake was highest among Catholics (80%) and lowest among Protestants (70%) who were predominantly Pentecostal. In multivariable analysis, urban location and non-Catholic clinic affiliation, Catholic religion of woman or couple, younger age of men, lower educational level of both partners, non-use of condoms or injectable contraception at enrollment, prior discussion of LARC by the couple, and women not having concerns about negative side effects of implant were associated with LARC uptake. CONCLUSIONS: Fertility goal-based LARC recommendations combined with couples' HIV counselling and testing resulted in a high uptake of LARC methods, even among discordant couples using condoms for HIV prevention, in Catholic clinics, and in rural populations. This model successfully integrates prevention of HIV and ...

AbstractIntroductionCouples' voluntary HIV counselling and testing (CVCT) is a high‐impact HIV prevention intervention in Rwanda and Zambia. Our objective was to model the cost‐per‐HIV infection averted by CVCT in six African countries guided by an HIV prevention cascade framework. The HIV prevention cascade as yet to be applied to evaluating CVCT effectiveness or cost‐effectiveness.MethodsWe defined a priority population for CVCT in Africa as heterosexual adults in stable couples. Based on our previous experience nationalizing CVCT in Rwanda and scaling‐up CVCT in 73 clinics in Zambia, we estimated HIV prevention cascade domains of motivation for use, access and effectiveness of CVCT as model parameters. Costs‐per‐couple tested were also estimated based on our previous studies. We used these parameters as well as country‐specific inputs to model the impact of CVCT over a five‐year time horizon in a previously developed and tested deterministic compartmental model. We consider six countries across Africa with varied HIV epidemics (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Tanzania, Ivory Coast and Sierra Leone). Outcomes of interest were the proportion of HIV infections averted by CVCT, nationwide CVCT implementation costs and costs‐per‐HIV infection averted by CVCT. We applied 3%/year discounting to costs and outcomes. Univariate and Monte Carlo multivariate sensitivity analyses were conducted.ResultsWe estimated that CVCT could avert between 54% (Sierra Leone) and 62% (South Africa) of adult HIV infections. Average costs‐per‐HIV infection averted were lowest in Zimbabwe ($550) and highest in South Africa ($1272). Nationwide implementations would cost between 7% (Kenya) and 21% (Ivory Coast) of a country's President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) budget over five years. In sensitivity analyses, model outputs were most sensitive to estimates of cost‐per‐couple tested; the proportion of adults in heterosexual couples and HIV prevention cascade domains of CVCT motivation and access.ConclusionsOur model indicates that nationalized CVCT could prevent over half of adult HIV infections for 7% to 21% of the modelled countries' five‐year PEPFAR budgets. While other studies have indicated that CVCT motivation is high given locally relevant promotional and educational efforts, without required indicators, targets and dedicated budgets, access remains low.

BackgroundMany HIV voluntary testing and counselling centres in Africa use rapid antibody tests, in parallel or in sequence, to establish same‐day HIV status. The interpretation of indeterminate or discrepant results between different rapid tests on one sample poses a challenge. We investigated the use of an algorithm using three serial rapid HIV tests in cohabiting couples to resolve unclear serostatuses.MethodsHeterosexual couples visited the Rwanda Zambia HIV Research Group testing centres in Kigali, Rwanda, and Lusaka, Zambia, to assess HIV infection status. Individuals with unclear HIV rapid antibody test results (indeterminate) or discrepant results were asked to return for repeat testing to resolve HIV status. If either partner of a couple tested positive or indeterminate with the screening test, both partners were tested with a confirmatory test. Individuals with indeterminate or discrepant results were further tested with a tie‐breaker and monthly retesting. HIV‐RNA viral load was determined when HIV status was not resolved by follow‐up rapid testing. Individuals were classified based on two of three initial tests as "Positive", "Negative" or "Other". Follow‐up testing and/or HIV‐RNA viral load testing determined them as "Infected", "Uninfected" or "Unresolved".ResultsOf 45,820 individuals tested as couples, 2.3% (4.1% of couples) had at least one discrepant or indeterminate rapid result. A total of 65% of those individuals had follow‐up testing and of those individuals initially classified as "Negative" by three initial rapid tests, less than 1% were resolved as "Infected". In contrast, of those individuals with at least one discrepant or indeterminate result who were initially classified as "Positive", only 46% were resolved as "Infected", while the remainder was resolved as "Uninfected" (46%) or "Unresolved" (8%). A positive HIV serostatus of one of the partners was a strong predictor of infection in the other partner as 48% of individuals who resolved as "Infected" had an HIV‐infected spouse.ConclusionsIn more than 45,000 individuals counselled and tested as couples, only 5% of individuals with indeterminate or discrepant rapid HIV test results were HIV infected. This represented only 0.1% of all individuals tested. Thus, algorithms using screening, confirmatory and tie‐breaker rapid tests are reliable with two of three tests negative, but not when two of three tests are positive. False positive antibody tests may persist. HIV‐positive partner serostatus should prompt repeat testing.