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Because humans are the product of our evolutionary past, learning how we evolved is fundamental to all anthropological investigations. We now realize that reconstructing why unique human attributes evolved requires an understanding of our starting point, but this is a relatively recent perspective. One hundred years ago, the question of human origins was identical to that of hominin origins. Accepting Australopithecus into human ancestry, coupled with the modern synthesis of evolution, led anthropologists to consider humans as products of natural selection. They realized that increased intelligence did not initially distinguish our lineage, and that early hominins were apelike in many ways. Australopithecus brought bipedalityr and brain expansion came with Homo. Because the human mind and behavior are products of evolution, we must reconstruct the selective pressures that shaped our lineage in order to understand ourselves today. Paleoanthropology, as with all anthropology, is becoming ever more question oriented, drawing on many areas of inquiry. [Keywords: human origins, human evolution, history, data, theory]

Abstract In response to recent recommendations to incorporate social, political, and cultural contexts into employment and poverty analyses for minority populations, this paper draws on several sources and types of data to examine the human capital and labor force participation patterns of Northern Cheyenne Indians and non‐Indians in Rosebud County, Montana. Discussions utilizing human capital and economic organization data contribute to clarifying differences in poverty levels of the two populations. However, the "embeddedness" approach utilizes ethnographic data and recent analyses of schooling to illuminate the social and cultural relations affecting Northern Cheyenne employment patterns as well as the methods by which individuals, families, and communities adapt to the recent declines in economic opportunity and wages on the reservation. Such discussions suggest the need to reconsider policies designed to address American Indian human capital formation and economic development needs.

This research investigates the school performance of Indian students on the Northern Cheyenne reservation using both quantitative and qualitative data. Understanding influences on school performance is important since previous research established its impact on dropout behavior. Statistical analyses assess the relative effects of students' residence in reservation communities, the type of schools students attend (public. Catholic, or tribal), gender, family characteristics, and school experience variables. Findings reveal the importance of students' community residence for explaining performance levels at the two Indian schools, the tribally controlled and Catholic schools, and school experiences for understanding performance of the non‐Indian public school students. Qualitative data on contextual factors for communities and schools help to explain how community characteristics such as population size, community access to the school, support for education, and traditional culture interact with the specific schools serving the community. This research suggests that contrary to conventional analyses of American Indian assimilation, the traditional culture, social resources, and interaction patterns of students' communities can have positive effects on students' schooling outcomes.

Factors related to dropping out of school are examined among a rural population of American Indians in southeastern Montana. Analyses assess the relative effects of community location, type of school, and student, family, and school variables on dropout behavior. Findings reveal the importance of students' community residence, parental education, and school experiences. The effects of these factors vary by school, however, suggesting that schools create different environments, opportunities, and relationships with specific communities that affect school outcomes. This research suggests the need to examine interactions among schools and Indian students, their families, and communities to understand school dropout patterns.

Examines the role of women in the treatment of alcoholism in American Indian communities, focusing on their use of traditional healing methods. Using a world-systems perspective, the processes of healing & recovery from alcohol use & abuse are linked to larger cultural, economic, & political changes affecting such communities. The effects of American Indian assimilation into the larger US social & economic structure are analyzed, & larger social forces that detrimentally impact Indians & contribute to their abuse of alcohol are identified. The use of alcohol as a form of ethnic resistance, disease, or adaptive mechanism is considered, favoring the first. A case study is offered of the Northern Cheyenne tribe in southeastern MT, drawing on data obtained during focus groups with tribal members. Analysis demonstrates how changes in life on the reservation have affected women's roles regarding alcohol treatment & recovery. These women's use of traditional vs mainstream medical healing is also discussed as a form of resistance. 73 References. K. Hyatt Stewart