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The potential for urban violence is increasing as the world population continues to migrate towards cities. Recent examples of urban warfare with insurgent groups has occurred in Damascus, Mosul, Raqqa, Marawi, Ramadi, and Fallujah, although non-State actor conflict covers a wide range of violence from ordinary crime, to terrorism and transnational crime, to near conventional conflict. Further, transnational terrorist groups have sought to extend the conflict into countries seen as the "far enemy." A key issue is determining if an armed conflict is in existence so that the protective focus of international humanitarian law regarding the provision of medical care and humanitarian relief will be applied. However, even where an armed conflict does exist, consideration must also be given to human rights law. This occurs for a number of reasons, including its continuing application during armed conflict, rulings by human rights courts that view that body of law as exclusively governing internal "counterterrorism operations," a decision by States to deny the existence of an armed conflict, or a policy decision that law enforcement operations will be exclusively applied to counter a terrorist or insurgent threat. The result has been an increasing recognition of the applicability and relevance of both bodies of law. While humanitarian law provides a more comprehensive and specific body of rules for the provision of medical care, human rights law has a role to play, particularly since it better addresses the broader dimensions of health care. With many States preferring a human rights-based law enforcement approach even during armed conflict there likely will be a trend towards incorporating humanitarian based obligations into human rights law-based medical care considerations. In any event, challenges remain regarding the treatment of civilians who are increasingly the victims of urban violence. These include providing adequate medical care to civilians at the tactical level; the targeting of medical hospitals, clinics, and medical personnel; and the impact of explosive weapons in an urban environment. Whether medical care is provided under international humanitarian law or human rights law, the focus must remain on ensuring both military personnel and civilians are equally protected under the law.

In September 2014 the United States and Coalition partners conducted aerial attacks against several Islamic State-operated modular oil refineries in Syria. The Pentagon's rationale is that the refineries provided fuel for Islamic State operations, money to finance continued attacks and constituted an economic asset to support future operations. Attacking the oil production facilities to stop the sale of smuggled oil, the proceeds of which "fuel" Islamic State activities is potentially controversial. Additional Protocol I limits attacks to those objects that "make an effective contribution to military action." The U.S. position is that "war-sustaining objects" may also be lawfully targeted, thus including a much broader justification for the use of force. The article examines the issue of where to draw the line between objects being struck and the military activity of the Islamic State, as well as a number of other targeting issues.

AbstractThis article explores the law governing the maintenance of public order and safety during belligerent occupation. Given the potential for widespread violence associated with international armed conflict, such as occurred in 2003–2004 in Iraq, it is inevitable that military and police forces will be engaged in activities that interface and overlap. Human-rights-based norms governing law enforcement, such as the right to life, are found in humanitarian law, permitting an application of both law enforcement and conduct of hostilities norms under that body of law. This results in the simultaneous application of these norms through both humanitarian and human rights law, which ultimately enhances the protection of inhabitants of the occupied territory.

According to protesters, U.S. soldiers fired on them without provocation, killing seventeen people and wounding more than seventy. According to die U.S. military, the soldiers returned precision fire on gunmen in the crowd who were shooting at them.—Human Rights WatchThe twenty-first century has witnessed significant challenges to the traditional view that international humanitarian law exclusively regulates the use of force in armed conflict. The death and destruction caused on September 11,2001, reflect the increasingly complex nature of modern conflict. Groups that rely on the benefits of globalization and technological advances to conduct operations across international borders are threatening the maintenance of international order. Their tools of violence range from conventional weapons of war to more modern weapons of mass destruction and potentially asymmetric "cyber attacks."

The Law in War offers an insightful roadmap to understanding a broad range of operational, humanitarian, and accountability issues that arise during armed conflict. Each chapter provides a clear and comprehensive explanation of the impact that international law has on military operations. The second edition has been fully revised to reflect recent advances in international humanitarian law and expands the analysis to include as a brand-new chapter on international human rights law, which addresses issues such as the conduct of law enforcement during hostilities. With a particular focus on updates concerning the status of combatants and unprivileged belligerents, the protection of civilians, targeting, the treatment of POWs and detainees, weapons law, air and missile warfare, naval warfare and neutrality, command responsibility, and accountability. New material has also been added to address the increasing involvement of private security contractors in warfare.The Law in War is an ideal text for students in a variety of domains, to include international humanitarian law, international human rights law, international relations, and military science. It is also a valuable resource for those involved in the planning, execution, and critique of military operations across the spectrum of conflict.