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Abstract: BackgroundForests perform various important ecosystem functions that contribute to ecosystem services. In many parts of the world, forest management has shifted from a focus on timber production to multi-purpose forestry, combining timber production with the supply of other forest ecosystem services. However, it is unclear which forest types provide which ecosystem services and to what extent forests primarily managed for timber already supply multiple ecosystem services. Based on a comprehensive dataset collected across 150 forest plots in three regions differing in management intensity and species composition, we develop models to predict the potential supply of 13 ecosystem services. We use those models to assess the level of multifunctionality of managed forests at the national level using national forest inventory data.ResultsLooking at the potential supply of ecosystem services, we found trade-offs (e.g. between both bark beetle control or dung decomposition and both productivity or soil carbon stocks) as well as synergies (e.g. for temperature regulation, carbon storage and culturally interesting plants) across the 53 most dominant forest types in Germany. No single forest type provided all ecosystem services equally. Some ecosystem services showed comparable levels across forest types (e.g. decomposition or richness of saprotrophs), while others varied strongly, depending on forest structural attributes (e.g. phosphorous availability or cover of edible plants) or tree species composition (e.g. potential nitrification activity). Variability in potential supply of ecosystem services was only to a lesser extent driven by environmental conditions. However, the geographic variation in ecosystem function supply across Germany was closely linked with the distribution of main tree species.ConclusionsOur results show that forest multifunctionality is limited to subsets of ecosystem services. The importance of tree species composition highlights that a lack of multifunctionality at the stand level can be compensated by managing forests at the landscape level, when stands of complementary forest types are combined. These results imply that multi-purpose forestry should be based on a variety of forest types requiring coordinated planning across larger spatial scales

Abstract
Cities have been shown to be biodiverse, but it is unclear what fraction of a regional species pool can live within city borders and how this differs between taxa. Among animals, most research has focused on a few well-studied taxa, such as birds or butterflies. For other species, progress is limited by the paucity of data. We used species occurrence data for 11 taxa and 23 German cities from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and the different German states, in a 50-km buffer around the city centre, to investigate what proportion of species of the regional species pools also occur in cities. While data could be obtained for all cities from GBIF, state databases only provided data for a subset of cities. Sample coverage of data from GBIF was higher across all taxa than of the state databases. For each database and taxon, we analysed (i) all cities where the number of occurrences of a taxon was >50 and (ii) only those cities where additionally sample coverage was >0.85. Across all taxa studied on average, 44.9 ± 7.2% (GBIF) and 40.8 ± 9.6% (German states) of the species of the regional species pool were also found in cities. When all cities were considered together, more than 76% of all species occurred within city borders. Our results show that German cities harbour a large part of the regional diversity of different taxa when city borders rather than the city centre is considered. This opens up ample opportunities for conservation and for fostering human–nature relationships.

Biodiversity's contribution to human welfare has become a key argument for maintaining and enhancing biodiversity in managed ecosystems. The functional relationship between biodiversity (b) and economic value (V) is, however, insufficiently understood, despite the premise of a positive-concave bV relationship that dominates scientific and political arenas. Here, we review how individual links between biodiversity, ecosystem functions (F), and services affect resulting bV relationships. Our findings show that bV relationships are more variable, also taking negative-concave/convex or strictly concave and convex forms. This functional form is driven not only by the underlying bF relationship but also by the number and type of ecosystem services and their potential trade-offs considered, the effects of inputs, and the type of utility function used to represent human preferences. Explicitly accounting for these aspects will enhance the substance and coverage of future valuation studies and allow more nuanced conclusions, particularly for managed ecosystems.

Abstract
Animals are a constant presence in urban environments. While there is a handful of studies that have addressed which urban animals people like, there is little knowledge on where in the city people want them to be. There is the risk of a misalignment between human urban inhabitants' specific desires for more nature in cities and the results of urban renaturing initiatives. We conducted an online survey on inhabitants of Munich (Germany) to investigate their attitudes towards 32 different urban animals and where they want them to occur. These places ranged from their own home or garden, to different places within the city, and to outside of the city. In total, 10 000 flyers were distributed in houses surrounding 40 city squares, and 305 people participated. We found that people rather placed animals further away than close to home. There were clear differences between different animal species in where they were placed by people, from species being placed close to home, to species wanted only outside the city. There were also clear differences in attitude towards the different animals, and participants on averaged placed animals closer to home if they liked them more. People have clear preferences for the placing of different animals in an urban context. Knowledge on these preferences can help to design targeted conservation actions and environmental education programs.

Zentrale Aussagen: - Agrarlandschaften haben neben der Sicherung der Ernährungsgrundlagen viele weitere Funktionen. Hierzu zählen Ökosystemleistungen wie Bodenfruchtbarkeit und die Filterung und Speicherung von Wasser oder die Bestäubungsleistungen von Insekten. Agrarlandschaften sind auch Kulturlandschaften und als solche zugleich Lebensraum für Tiere und Pflanzen. Die Kulturlandschaft dient nicht zuletzt auch der Erholung des Menschen. - Die biologische Vielfalt in der Agrarlandschaft in Deutschland ist, selbst in Naturschutzgebieten, bei vielen Artengruppen stark zurückgegangen. Es gibt viele wissenschaftliche Belege dafür, dass der Rückgang der biologischen Vielfalt in der Agrarlandschaft Folgen für die Funtkionsfähigkeit der Aagrrökosysteme hat. - Der Wert biologischer Vielfalt besteht nicht nur in ihrem ökonomischen Potenzial. Ökosystemleistungen, kulturelle Werte sowie die Erhaltung der Arten um ihrer selbst willen begründen eine Ethik der Bewahrung der Vielfalt, die sich nicht gegen verengte ökonomische Überlegungen aufrechnen lässt. Der Wert biologischer Vielfalt in der Agrarlandschaft ist im Kontext der mannigfaltigen Leistungen der Agrarlandschaft und der daraus resultierenden Zielkonflikte zu betrachten. - Die Ursachen für den Rückgang an Tier- und Pflanzenarten liegen in einem Zusammenspiel vieler Faktoren: die Zunahme von ertragreichen, aber artenarmen Ackerbaukulturen, die vorbeugende und oft flächendeckende Nutzung von Pflanzenschutzmitteln, intensive Düngung, die Erhöhung der Schlaggrößen, der Verlust von artenreichem Grünland und ein struktureller Wandel der Nutztierhaltung hin zu größeren Betrieben mit weniger Weidehaltung, der Verlust der Strukturvielfalt der Landschaft, aber auch der Verlust der Vernetzung von Schutzgebieten. Diese Ursachen sind im Wesentlichen bedingt durch die Intensivierung der Landnutzung und durch biologisch-technische Innovationen für die Erreichung von Produktionszielen. - Maßnahmen zum Schutz und zur Förderung der biologischen Vielfalt müssen die ökonomischen, politischen, rechtlichen und gesellschaftlichen Rahmenbedingungen in der Landwirtschaft be- rücksichtigen. Daher ist eine systemische Herangehensweise mit vielfältigen, parallelen Lösungsansätzen notwendig. Ansatzpunkte sind neben der Landwirtschaft die Agrarpolitik, die marktwirtschaftlichen Rahmenbedingungen, das Agrar- und Umweltrecht sowie die Zivilgesellschaft und die Wissenschaft.

Land-use intensification can increase provisioning ecosystem services, such as food and timber production, but it also drives changes in ecosystem functioning and biodiversity loss, which may ultimately compromise human wellbeing. To understand how changes in land-use intensity affect the relationships between biodiversity, ecosystem functions, and services, we built networks from correlations between the species richness of 16 trophic groups, 10 ecosystem functions, and 15 ecosystem services. We evaluated how the properties of these networks varied across land-use intensity gradients for 150 forests and 150 grasslands. Land-use intensity significantly affected network structure in both habitats. Changes in connectance were larger in forests, while changes in modularity and evenness were more evident in grasslands. Our results show that increasing land-use intensity leads to more homogeneous networks with less integration within modules in both habitats, driven by the belowground compartment in grasslands, while forest responses to land management were more complex. Land-use intensity strongly altered hub identity and module composition in both habitats, showing that the positive correlations of provisioning services with biodiversity and ecosystem functions found at low land-use intensity levels, decline at higher intensity levels. Our approach provides a comprehensive view of the relationships between multiple components of biodiversity, ecosystem functions, and ecosystem services and how they respond to land use. This can be used to identify overall changes in the ecosystem, to derive mechanistic hypotheses, and it can be readily applied to further global change drivers. ; The work has been supported by the DFG Priority Program 1374 "Infrastructure-Biodiversity-Exploratories". S.S. was supported by the Spanish Government under Ramón y Cajal Contract RYC-2016-20604.

Trade-offs and synergies in the supply of forest ecosystem services are common but the drivers of these relationships are poorly understood. To guide management that seeks to promote multiple services, we investigated the relationships between 12 stand-level forest attributes, including structure, composition, heterogeneity and plant diversity, plus 4 environmental factors, and proxies for 14 ecosystem services in 150 temperate forest plots. Our results show that forest attributes are the best predictors of most ecosystem services and are also good predictors of several synergies and trade-offs between services. Environmental factors also play an important role, mostly in combination with forest attributes. Our study suggests that managing forests to increase structural heterogeneity, maintain large trees, and canopy gaps would promote the supply of multiple ecosystem services. These results highlight the potential for forest management to encourage multifunctional forests and suggest that a coordinated landscape-scale strategy could help to mitigate trade-offs in human-dominated landscapes. ; The work has been supported by the DFG Priority Program 1374 "Infrastructure-Biodiversity-Exploratories". Field work permits were issued by the responsible state environmental offices of Baden-Württemberg, Thüringen and Brandenburg (according to § 72 BbgNatSchG). S.S. was supported by the Spanish Government under a Ramón y Cajal contract (RYC-2016-20604).

In order to predict which ecosystem functions are most at risk from biodiversity loss, meta-analyses have generalised results from biodiversity experiments over different sites and ecosystem types. In contrast, comparing the strength of biodiversity effects across a large number of ecosystem processes measured in a single experiment permits more direct comparisons. Here, we present an analysis of 418 separate measures of 38 ecosystem processes. Overall, 45 % of processes were significantly affected by plant species richness, suggesting that, while diversity affects a large number of processes not all respond to biodiversity. We therefore compared the strength of plant diversity effects between different categories of ecosystem processes, grouping processes according to the year of measurement, their biogeochemical cycle, trophic level and compartment (above- or belowground) and according to whether they were measures of biodiversity or other ecosystem processes, biotic or abiotic and static or dynamic. Overall, and for several individual processes, we found that biodiversity effects became stronger over time. Measures of the carbon cycle were also affected more strongly by plant species richness than were the measures associated with the nitrogen cycle. Further, we found greater plant species richness effects on measures of biodiversity than on other processes. The differential effects of plant diversity on the various types of ecosystem processes indicate that future research and political effort should shift from a general debate about whether biodiversity loss impairs ecosystem functions to focussing on the specific functions of interest and ways to preserve them individually or in combination.