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DRAWING ON LENIN'S WRITINGS, THE COMMENTARY OF SOVIET SPECIALISTS, AND THE WORK OF THOSE WHO FOCUS ON THE SPECIAL CHARACTER OF VIOLENCE, THIS ARTICLE DISCUSSES LENIN'S VIEWS ON VIOLENCE OVER HIS LIFETIME, HIS DISTINCTION AMONG DIFFERENT TYPES OF VIOLENCE, HIS POLICIES AND THEIR RESULTS, AND FINALLY THE DOUBTS ABOUT HIS PRACTICES THAT HE ULTIMATELY EXPRESSED NEAR THE END OF HIS LIFE. BEGINNING IN THE TSARIST ERA WITH LENIN'S CAMPAIGN AMONG HIS FELLOW REVOLUTIONARIES TO REJECT INDIVIDUAL TERROR IN FAVOR OF MASS VIOLENCE, IT FOLLOWS HIM INTO POWER AS HE PUT HIS TENETS INTO PRACTICE AND FINALLY INTO HIS INTROSPECTIVE RETIREMENT. IT DISCUSSES HOW, OBLIVIOUS TO DEVELOPING DANGER HE UNLEASHED MASS VIOLENCE AND PRODDED IT TO ACTION IN THE SERVICE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY STATE; WHY HE REFUSED TO INCORPORATE SAFEGUARDS AGAINST RUNAWAY VIOLENCE; AND HOW, AS ITS DELETERIOUS EFFECTS BECAME MANIFEST, HE CONTINUED TO EMPLOY VIOLENCE AS BOTH INSTRUMENT OF CHOICE AND SUBSTITUTE FOR LEGITIMATE AUTHORITY. IT SHOWS THAT LENIN EVINCED AN ADDICTION TO VIOLENCE THAT CAUSED HIM TO OVERLOOK OR FORECLOSE OTHER, LESS RADICAL, POLITICAL METHODS FOR ACCOMPLISHING HIS GOALS. THE STATE THAT RESULTED FORM LENIN'S POLICIES WAS NOT WHAT HE HAD ENVISAGED, AND NOT THE RESULT OF A PRECONCEIVED PLAN. LENIN MADE A SERIES OF POLICY CHOICES--NONE FOREORDAINED BY CIRCUMSTANCE--WHICH YIELDED AN AUTHORITARIAN STATE GROUNDED IN VIOLENCE. THESE CHOICES WERE EXPLICITLY CONTESTED BY PROMINENT CONTEMPORARIES WITHIN AND OUTPY: 1993

THIS ARTICLE 1) EVALUATES THE TAX REFORM ACT OF 1986 (TRA) IN TERMS OF TAX REFORM CRITERIA; 2) ANALYZES THE HISTORICAL IMPORTANCE OF TRA RELATIVE TO EARLIER REFORM AND NONREFORM TAX LEGISLATION; AND 3) POSES THREE DIFFERENT EXPLANATORY MODELS FOR WHY THIS HISTORIC TAX BILL WAS ENACTED. THE AUTHOR ARGUES THAT THE 1986 LEGISLATION WAS NOT ONLY MAJOR TAX REFORM, BUT A RADICAL DEPARTURE FROM THE USUAL STANDARDS OF INCREMENTAL TAX LEGISLATION. OF THE THREE EXPLANATORY MODELS, THE AUTHOR ARGUES THAT IT IS MOST LIKELY THAT THE ACT IS A COMBINATION OF EPIPHENOMENAL EVENTS AND REACTIVE LEGISLATION, THAN A TRUE WATERSHED INDICATING A LONG-TERM CHANGE OF DIRECTION IN TAX POLICY. THE FINAL SECTION OF THE ARTICLE SUMMARIZES THE LESSONS LEARNED FROM 1986 AND OUTLINES THE IMPORTANCE OF THE VARIOUS EXPLANATIONS FOR UNDERSTANDING CURRENT CONGRESSIONAL BEHAVIOR ON FISCAL POLICY. HOW RADICAL A DEPARTURE THIS ACT WAS IS DETAILED.

AbstractDisruptive behavior in adolescents is burdensome and may continue into adulthood if left unidentified. The strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) can screen for disruptive behavior, but its psychometric properties in high‐risk samples and ability to predict delinquency warrant further investigation. In 1022 adolescents, we investigated the predictive validity (on average 1.9 years after screening) of the self‐reported SDQ on disruptive behavior disorders and delinquency, measured with multi‐informant questionnaires and structured interviews. We compared three scoring methods: total, subscale, and dysregulation profile scoring. In this high‐risk sample, SDQ subscale scores predicted disruptive behavior outcomes best. Predictive values for the specific types of delinquency were small. Concluding, the SDQ can be used in high‐risk settings for early identification of youth with disruptive behavior.

During the last 5 years, information on the regional tropospheric ozone levels over the eastern Mediterranean has become available but was confined to measurements at ground level. Here available information is expanded with measurements at two more rural ground level sites spanning 8° latitude, ozonesonde ascents, lidar observations, ship cruises, and aircraft flights. During wintertime the ozone monthly values are 1020 ppbv higher than values at other European sites, while during summertime the values are comparable. This results in regional ozone background levels in the area that are above the European Union (EU) 32 ppb/24 hours phytotoxicity limit during the entire year. Late spring lidar observations show that south and southwestern synoptic flows which are associated with Saharan dust events result in lower ozone above the planetary boundary layer (PBL) by 20-35 ppbv as compared to these during northerly flows, which transport air from continental Europe. These lidar observations along with ship measurements during July show that ozone is enhanced 1.5-2.2 times in the continental outflow, when compared to aged maritime air or air from the African continent. These results along with ozonesonde observations suggest that ozone abatement in the area is largely beyond the control of regional emissions and can be controlled only with emission reductions on a European scale. During September, measured background NO and NO2 levels between 3 and 4.5 km above sea level ranged from 1 to 221 pptv and from 102 to 580 pptv, respectively. The troposphere contains around 40-70 Dobson units of ozone during summer and around 20-30 Dobson units during winter. Copyright 2002 by the American Geophysical Union.

For policy making and spatial planning, information is needed about the impacts of climate change on natural ecosystems. To provide this information, commonly hydrological and ecological models are used. We give arguments for our assessment that modelling only is insufficient for determining the impacts of climate changes on natural ecosystems at regional scales. Instead, we proposed a combination of hydrological simulations, a literature review and process-knowledge on climate-hydrology-vegetation interactions, to compile a sketch map that indicates climate change effects on a number of ecosystems in the Netherlands. Soon after a first version of our sketch map was published by a Dutch professional journal, copies appeared in policy documents, and also in a commercial and popular atlas of the Netherlands. Moreover, the map led to a question in the Dutch parliament about the sustainability of bog reserves under the future climate. Apparently, there was an urgent need for the information provided by the map. The map shows that climate change will presumably have the largest influence on ecosystems in the Netherlands that depend on precipitation as the major water source, like heathlands, dry grasslands, rain-fed moorland pools and raised bogs. Also highly susceptible are fens in reserves surrounded by deeply drained polders, because such fens depend on the inlet of surface water, of which quality is likely to deteriorate upon climate change. While the map is indicative for directions of change, in view of the uncertainties of our study, no conclusions should be drawn that may have far-reaching consequences, such as giving up certain nature targets that might no longer be feasible in the future climate. Instead, we advise to anticipate the potential threats from climate change by taking a number of adaptation measures that enhance the robustness of nature reserves. To improve climate change projections on hydrology and ecosystems, future research should especially focus on feedbacks of vegetation on the water balance, on processes that directly influence plant performance and on the ecological effects of weather extremes.

For policy making and spatial planning, information is needed about the impacts of climate change on natural ecosystems. To provide this information, commonly hydrological and ecological models are used. We give arguments for our assessment that modelling only is insufficient for determining the impacts of climate changes on natural ecosystems at regional scales. Instead, we proposed a combination of hydrological simulations, a literature review and process-knowledge on climate-hydrology-vegetation interactions, to compile a sketch map that indicates climate change effects on a number of ecosystems in the Netherlands. Soon after a first version of our sketch map was published by a Dutch professional journal, copies appeared in policy documents, and also in a commercial and popular atlas of the Netherlands. Moreover, the map led to a question in the Dutch parliament about the sustainability of bog reserves under the future climate. Apparently, there was an urgent need for the information provided by the map. The map shows that climate change will presumably have the largest influence on ecosystems in the Netherlands that depend on precipitation as the major water source, like heathlands, dry grasslands, rain-fed moorland pools and raised bogs. Also highly susceptible are fens in reserves surrounded by deeply drained polders, because such fens depend on the inlet of surface water, of which quality is likely to deteriorate upon climate change. While the map is indicative for directions of change, in view of the uncertainties of our study, no conclusions should be drawn that may have far-reaching consequences, such as giving up certain nature targets that might no longer be feasible in the future climate. Instead, we advise to anticipate the potential threats from climate change by taking a number of adaptation measures that enhance the robustness of nature reserves. To improve climate change projections on hydrology and ecosystems, future research should especially focus on feedbacks of vegetation on the water balance, on processes that directly influence plant performance and on the ecological effects of weather extremes.