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This study reports opinions and practices of teachers of students with visual impairments (TSVIs) in 34 states regarding functional literacy for students with visual impairments (VIs) and significant cognitive disabilities (SCDs). The survey asked TSVIs to select a definition of functional literacy, indicate agreement with a series of literacy statements for both students who use and do not use vision to access pictures and print, and list factors that contribute to successfully teaching functional literacy. Data from the survey returns were analyzed descriptively and McNemar's test of paired proportions and the Mann Whitney U test were conducted to investigate response differences for some items. A high level of agreement was evident overall, but teacher perspective differed when considering students who cannot visually access pictures or print. Some differences were also evident based on the functional literacy definition the respondents selected. Implications for teams working with students with VIs and SCDs in the area of literacy are discussed.

This qualitative study explores the potential for metaphor, movement, gesture, and vocalization in helping learners notice mathematically important features of graphs, and in making mathematics more accessible for learners with visual impairment. Two elementary school students with visual impairment were introduced to several multimodal activities related to the graphs of mathematical functions, using a pre-/post-assessment methodology. Video recordings of the session were coded for qualitative changes in engagement with graphs through multimodal representations. After the activity intervention, both students showed improvements in their ability to voice, gesture, and describe details of mathematical graphs with accuracy and understanding. The findings demonstrate the potential of multimodal methods for teaching mathematics and enhancing other skill areas through movement, metaphor, voice, and gesture. The findings suggest that full-bodied experience with graphs can provide foundational support for learners with visual impairment to work with print or tactile graphics. We propose that purposeful selection of materials and collaboration between teachers of students with visual impairment, mathematics educators, and teachers of dance and physical education can enhance the design and implementation of effective lessons using multimodal means.

Introduction:This study explored the role of the cultural liaison on educational teams that support families from culturally and linguistically diverse (hereafter, diverse) backgrounds who have a child with visual impairment.Methods:Focus groups were conducted with teachers of students with visual impairments, cultural liaisons, and classroom teachers, all who had worked with diverse families and students with visual impairments in an urban Canadian school district. Transcripts of the focus groups were coded for common and divergent themes within and across groups.Results:The groups identified a need for better understanding the role of the cultural liaison, clearer communication in the translation process including messages that may be lost in translation, and more opportunities for teachers of students with visual impairments and classroom teachers to connect with cultural liaisons to develop cultural competency.Discussion:The findings highlight the importance of having access to cultural liaisons and the need to make sure all members are clear about their roles. Cultural liaisons may need additional support about resources from teachers of students with visual impairments, while those same teachers would benefit from understanding the parent perspective on visual impairment.Implications for practitioners:Classroom teachers and teachers of students with visual impairments may want to seek out professional development from cultural liaisons. Teachers of students with visual impairments can provide cultural liaisons with a list of common visual impairment terms to allow time for appropriate translation and questions before a meeting. Cultural liaisons may want to ensure that differing cultural viewpoints of the family are communicated clearly to team members and vice versa.

This study's goal was to investigate the extent to which general classroom teachers were implementing practices to promote the inclusion of students with visual impairment (VI) using self-regulated learning (SRL) as a framework for the study. SRL can help students, including struggling students or students with special needs, acquire the skills to take control of their learning situations as well as feel more included in the classroom. Observations and self-report questionnaires designed from SRL practices that foster inclusion were used to collect the data. Overall, the teachers provided limited opportunities at a depth that promoted inclusion or supported the SRL development of students with VI. Teacher training in SRL and student readiness to meet higher expectations will support inclusion within an SRL framework.

Introduction: The ability of students to engage with graphical materials supports learning in science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics areas. For students with visual impairments, understanding the factors that contribute to the effective interpretation of graphics can promote meaningful access to the curricula. Methods: Forty students with visual impairments completed multiple-choice question tasks for five types of graphics presented in their medium of choice and provided difficulty ratings. The teachers of students with visual impairments rated the students on several factors. Statistical analyses investigated the relationship between performance differences and teacher-rated factors. Results: Significant differences in performance between print and tactile graphics users were found for bar graph, map, and total correct responses on all tasks. For some tasks, perceived difficulty by tactile graphic users did not align with actual performance. Teachers' ratings of students who had Individualized Education Program goals for graphics, independence in using graphics, problem-solving ability, mathematics ability, and frequency of engaging with graphics contributed to significant differences in performance across total correct and most individual graphic results. Discussion: Although medium type was a significant contributor across graphic types, some teacher-rated variables appeared to mitigate the importance of medium on student performance. Depending on the graphic type, experience, content knowledge, skills with graphics, and confidence and motivation can all affect student performance when interpreting graphics. Implications for practitioners: Teachers should provide students with early and frequent opportunities to engage with graphics and support their problem-solving abilities regarding how to engage with different graphic types to enhance their independent use of graphics.

Introduction This study analyzed the qualitative responses of a survey of teachers of students with visual impairments in Canada and the United States about tactile and print graphic use by their students with visual impairments. Questions focused on barriers to students using graphics, strategies taught to tactile graphics users, and profiles of successful tactile and print graphics users. Methods The researchers followed a thematic analysis approach to independently code and then reach consensus on themes and subthemes of the qualitative responses. Results In general, the teachers cited a range of challenges under the main themes of quality and instruction. Subcategories included availability of time for both production and instruction, lack of standardization in material production, and student development of concepts through the use of graphics. Main characteristics of successful graphics users included motivation and an ability to apply skills across tasks. Variations in responses for tactile and print graphics users are highlighted. Discussion Findings highlighted areas in which teachers of students with visual impairments can focus to promote effective graphics use by their students. Commonality in strategies used for teaching tactile graphics was apparent, as was a general belief that being intelligent contributed to success. Implications for practitioners Frequent exposure and practice with graphics, whether tactile or print, is important. Developing an ability to analyze the features of a graphic and its impact on comprehension can inform strategies for and selection of instructional methods.

Introduction This study analyzed the responses of a survey of students with visual impairments in Canada and the United States about their use of tactile and print graphics. Demographic, Likert scale, and open-ended questions focused on perceptions of quality, preferences, instruction, and strategies. Methods Percentages of agreement for tactile and print graphic users are reported. Comparisons were made between the two groups. Results Students felt positive about the quality of the graphics, but density and complexity were identified as challenges. Students varied as to whether they felt graphics supported their understanding of concepts. Both groups indicated that written descriptions were helpful. Students in this survey were positive about knowing how to use strategies that help them access graphics. Discussion Tactile graphics appear to play an additional role in inclusion for some students. Attention to instructional needs should not overlook students with visual impairments who use print graphics. Additional inclusion of quality written descriptions may support understanding of graphical information. Implications for practitioners Conceptual understanding would be supported by helping students recognize where graphics and descriptions are useful. Timeliness of access to graphics in the classroom and attention to quality graphics that reduce complexity and clutter remain important.

IntroductionThis study investigated the perceptions and practices of teachers of students with visual impairments in Canada and the United States regarding graphics (both tactile and print) that are used by students with visual impairments. Questions focused on quality, importance, and instruction in the use of graphics.MethodsAn electronic survey was disseminated. Results were summarized by percentage, based on the number of respondents who answered each question. Parallel questions that compared responses for tactile versus print graphics were statistically compared using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and effect sizes were computed.ResultsIn general, teachers valued the use of graphics and the need to provide instruction. Significant differences were found in how teachers answered tactile and print graphic questions. Fewer than 50% of the respondents felt that graphics were appropriately adapted on large-scale assessments, that there was sufficient instruction in the use of graphics in mainstream classrooms, or that there was an adequate amount of instructional time to teach the use of graphics.DiscussionFindings highlighted a need to gain insight into effective teaching strategies that help students gather information from both tactile and print graphics. Attention to students with low vision using print graphics needs to be part of future investigations.Implications for practitionersAdvocacy for sufficient instruction time for graphics and continued monitoring of the quality and effectiveness of graphics in educational materials are important. Providing feedback to material producers can help to support quality. Increasing student independence and exposure to graphics could support the effective use of graphics on assessments.

The study presented here investigated factors that are related to social skills measures of youths with visual impairments. It found that participation in extracurricular activities and paid work experiences, as well as the age of onset of visual impairments, were significantly related to differences in the participants' scores on the Social Skills Rating System.

This study reports the results of interviews conducted with families from Hispanic backgrounds who have children with visual impairments receiving special education services. Families were recruited in two states within the United States. A total of 11 Hispanic mothers participated in the study. The interviews were conducted to learn about family needs and perspectives to inform personnel preparation. Four major themes emerged from the interviews: quantity and quality of services, communication issues, need for resources, and cultural differences. Discussion provides insights learned by the researchers when working with culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) families, including considerations for data gathering, cultural rapport, and recruitment of participants.

To be effective teachers of literacy for students who read braille, we need to know what our students' strengths and needs are as all these components come together in braille literacy. Using an appropriate assessment that addresses the skill sets involved in braille literacy is critical to putting together effective intervention packages for our students. The first author used the Kamei-Hannan and Ricci Reading Assessment (2015) and the Braille Reading Analysis Chart (Harley, et al., 1997) to determine areas of need for a student in grade 2 in a braille literacy program. Needs included: identifying ending sounds and naming final letters and sounds; basic decoding of short and long vowel sounds; recognizing sight words; and identifying letters. Specific miscue patterns in tactile perception (reversals) were identified. Information gathered from these assessments was used to develop a targeted intervention package and informed the development of a balanced literacy program for this student. Following a period of implementation, data showed evidence of overall improvement in braille literacy skills.

Introduction: Facility in graphics use is critical to accessing data visualizations in science, technology, engineering, the arts, and mathematics (STEAM) content areas. Efforts to understand the cognitive processes underlying strategic action by students with visual impairments must consider both metacognition and self-regulated learning. Methods: Think-aloud transcripts were analyzed using a priori level one coding based on the Model of Graphic Interpretation (MoGI) followed by second-level coding to analyze nuanced commonalities and differences based on performance, medium, and level. Results: Differences in each component of the MoGI were found for print graphic and tactile graphic users, particularly based on performance and level. Higher performers were better able to articulate strategy use and reasons for selecting strategies. Discussion: Findings coincide with quantitative findings of the participants (see Zebehazy & Wilton, 2021 ). Transcripts provided additional confirming evidence of the interdependence of MoGI components. Implications for Practitioners: Use of think aloud can support assessment and instruction of students with visual impairments to build strategic action and metacognition when engaging with graphics.

Introduction This study investigated differential item functioning (DIF) of test items on Pennsylvania's Alternate System of Assessment (PASA) for students with visual impairments and severe cognitive disabilities and what the reasons for the differences may be. Methods The Wilcoxon signed ranks test was used to analyze differences in the scores of the students with visual impairments and severe cognitive disabilities who took the Grade 3–4 or 7–8 Level A PASA compared to matched peers without visual impairments. The students with visual impairments were analyzed as a group and by level of functional vision. Logical analyses of videotaped assessments of the students with visual impairments were conducted to identify potential sources of DIF. Results Among the functional vision groups, 17 instances in reading and 22 instances in math were flagged for DIF, with 14 skills in reading and 13 in math emerging as harder for students with visual impairments. The types of items that were significantly different included those involving money, matching, and selecting the smallest. Potential reasons for the differences included students needing a better orientation to test materials; the influence of lucky guesses based on distractor characteristics; and the influence of accommodations, such as the substitution of objects. Discussion The results demonstrate the complexity and importance of evaluating the validity of alternate performance-based assessments for students with visual impairments and severe cognitive disabilities. The themes that emerged suggest the need to structure alternate assessment tasks for consistent orientation to materials and to consider closely how accommodations affect the difficulty of the tasks. Implications for practitioners Practitioners should consider how the reading progression for their students with visual impairments and severe cognitive disabilities is related to alternate standards and the instruction that is in place to learn concepts that were missed incidentally. Practitioners can help improve alternate assessments by communicating with their states about the types of tasks that are difficult to accommodate in their current format or by requesting guidance in making meaningful accommodations that maintain the intent of the items.

IntroductionThis study investigated the use of accommodations and the performance of students with visual impairments and severe cognitive disabilities on the Pennsylvania Alternate System of Assessment (PASA)γÇöan alternate performance-based assessment.MethodsDifferences in test scores on the most basic level (level A) of the PASA of 286 students with visual impairments, grouped into one of three functional vision levels, in grades 3/4 or 7/8 were analyzed descriptively as well as inferentially using the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis and ad hoc Mann Whitney U tests. In addition, teachers of students with visual impairments viewed the videotaped assessments of 257 of these students to record accommodations used. Accommodations data were analyzed for patterns and relationships with test item types. Chi-Squares were calculated.ResultsThere was a significant difference in test scores by functional vision level, with students who predominantly use vision performing significantly better than students who use a combination of vision and other senses or use other senses in place of vision. The accommodations used generally matched a student's reported level of functional vision with layout and presentation accommodations being the most prevalent.DiscussionThe types of accommodations selected may be due to the structure of alternate assessments but also raise questions about what is a progression in reading for students who do not access pictures and print with vision. Differences in performance raise questions of accessibility vs. ability and the level of difficulty of test items when accommodations are used.Implications for practitionersPractitioners should advocate for guidance from alternate assessments on accommodation use that mirrors the intent of test items and consider how state alternate standards translate when tasks addressing those standards are adapted for students with visual impairments. Test developers should consider students with visual impairments when designing and interpreting alternate assessment test items.

This study compared the observational skills in orientation and mobility (O&M) of nine university students and nine certified O&M specialists using a digital video assessment. The students differed from the O&M specialists in their stylistic observations and the details of their responses. Implications for the improvement of video assessments are discussed.