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Evidence abounds that biogas technology has enormous health and environmental benefits, including improvement of community livelihood and health, sanitation, sustainable energy and reduced emissions. In spite of these benefits, intentions to adopt biogas technology arelow among household heads in developing countries, notably Ghana. This study aimed to investigate the dynamics of household heads' intentions to adopt biogas technology, based on the theory of planned behavior. The study adopted an exploratory design and collected data from 394 household heads' using questionnaires. It was discovered that attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control are significant predictors and independently contributed to predicting household heads' intentions to adopt biogas technology. Additionally, the study found that, the dynamics of ethnicity and education have a significantly direct effect on household heads' intentions to adopt biogas technology. The study recommends that respected persons in local communities, using Original Research Article different ethnic dialects, lead public education and awareness creation on the benefits of the use of biogas technology. Besides, government should subsidize the cost of biogas plants installation so as to promote its adoption rate.

Background: Work design integrates work characteristics having organizational, social and job components which influence employees' welfare and also organizational goals. We investigated the effects of work characteristics and other predictors to job satisfaction, turnover intention, and burnout in doctors of the public primary, public secondary and private facilities of the district health system of Bangladesh. Methods: A quantitative study using a self-administered questionnaire containing mostly structured items was conducted among the public and private doctors with a sample size of 384 from 29 out of a total 64 districts of Bangladesh during October and November 2015. All variables including work characteristics and outcomes of interest were based on literature and measured on 5-point Likert scale. Multivariate analysis of variance, bivariate correlation, and multiple regression were the models operated through SPSS version-21. Results: A total of 354 doctors responded. No significant differences were found between public primary and secondary level doctors on combined work characteristics and outcomes variables, which however differed significantly between the public and private doctors. Organizational support was the strongest predictor adversely affecting job satisfaction, turnover intention and burnout of both the public and private doctors; private doctors' experienced more support. The effects of health-professional politics on the public doctors were alarming. Conclusion: Work design of the Bangladesh's health system is in need of ample development. Doing so, improvement in organizational supports is crucial; however, other work characteristics components are also important for enhancing doctors' welfare and health system productivity.

Abstract Background Although there are an increasing number of studies on HIV-related stigma in Nigeria, very little research has focused on how power differences based on gender perpetuate the stigmatization of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) and how these gender differences affect the care that PLWHA receive in health care institutions. We explore gender-related beliefs and reactions of society, including health care professionals (HCPs), with regard to PLWHA, using Connell's theoretical framework of gender and power (1987). With Connell's structural theory of gender and power (financial inequality, authority and structure of social norms), we can describe gender differences in stigmatization of PLWHA. Method We conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews, lasting 60 to 90 minutes, with 100 persons (40 members of the general public, 40 HCPs and 20 PLWHA) in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. The interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed verbatim. The Nvivo 7 computer package was used to analyze the data. Results There are similarities and differences between the general public and HCPs towards PLWHA in gender-related beliefs and reactions. For instance, although association with promiscuity and power differences were commonly acknowledged in the different groups, there are differences in how these reactions are shown; such as HCPs asking the female PLWHA to inform their partners to ensure payment of hospital bills. Women with HIV/AIDS in particular are therefore in a disadvantaged position with regard to the care they receive. Conclusion Despite the fact that men and women with HIV/AIDS suffer the same illness, clear disparities are apparent in the negative reaction women and men living with HIV/AIDS experience in society. We show that women's generally low status in society contributes to the extreme negative reactions to which female PLWHA are subject. The government should create policies aimed at reducing the power differences in family, society and health care systems, which would be important to decrease the gender-related differences in stigma experienced by PLWHA. Interventions should be directed at the prevailing societal norms through appropriate legislation and advocacy at grassroots level with the support of men to counter laws that put women in a disadvantaged position. Furthermore, development of a policy that encourages equality in access to health care for all patients with HIV/AIDS by applying the same conditions to both men and women in health care institutions is recommended. There is a need to protect women's rights through implementing support policies, including paying attention to gender in the training of HCPs.

Conflict can be a primary driver of health inequalities, but its impact on the distribution of social determinants of health is not very well documented. Also, there is limited evidence on the most suitable approaches aiming at addressing health inequalities in post-conflict settings. Thus, we undertook a systematic review of the literature concerning the current knowledge and knowledge gaps about structural determinants of health inequalities and assessed the effects of approaches aimed at addressing health inequalities in post-conflict settings. We performed a systematic search in bibliographic databases such as Web of Science, PubMed, and PsycINFO for relevant publications, as well as institutional websites that are relevant to this topic. The search was initiated in March 2018 and ultimately updated in December 2020. No time or geographical restrictions were applied. The quality of each study included in this review was independently assessed using criteria developed by CASP to assess all study types. Sixty-two articles were deemed eligible for analysis. The key findings were captured by the most vulnerable population groups, including the civilian population, women, children, internally displaced persons (IDPs), and people with symptoms of mental illness. A considerable range of approaches has been used to address health inequalities in post-conflict settings. These approaches include those used to address structural determinants of health inequalities which are accountable for the association between poverty, education, and health inequalities, the association between human rights and health inequalities, and the association between health inequalities and healthcare utilization patterns. However, these approaches may not be the most applicable in this environment. Given the multifactorial characteristics of health inequalities, it is important to work with the beneficiaries in developing a multi-sector approach and a strategy targeting long-term impacts by decision-makers at various levels. When ...

Purpose. To examine associations between decisional balance, self-efficacy, fruit intake, and stage of change transition from precontemplation and contemplation with cross-sectional and longitudinal methods. Design. A longitudinal cohort study with the use of electronic questionnaires was conducted. Three measurements were analyzed cross-sectionally, and the two intervals between the measurements were analyzed longitudinally. Setting. A random sample of 1500 individuals from an existing Dutch Internet panel resulted in a cohort of 735 individuals. Of the cohort, 648 (response rate 88%), 592 (response rate 81%), and 570 (response rate 78%) respondents completed questionnaires at the start of the present study (T1), 53 days after T1 (T2), and 106 days after T1 (T3), respectively. Subjects. Mean age was 37.5 years, 51% were women, and 57% ate less than the recommended intake of 250 g of fruit per day. Measures. Questionnaires included items measuring stage of change, factors favoring (pros) or working against (cons) behavior change, and self-efficacy. A food frequency questionnaire was used to assess fruit intake. Results. Logistic regression analyses showed that pros, fruit intake, and self-efficacy predicted forward stage transition from precontemplation. Self-efficacy predicted forward stage transition from contemplation. Cons did not predict stage transitions. Results from longitudinal analyses were similar to cross-sectional results, except for self-efficacy: no differences between early stages in self-efficacy were found, whereas self-efficacy predicted these early stage transitions. Conclusions. Within the limitations posed by the sampling frame, results provided support for the Transtheoretical Model, although determinants might not always be stage specific.

Purpose. To explore psychosocial correlates and predictors of stage transitions in the precaution adoption process model (PAPM) for fruit intake. Design. A cohort completed three electronic questionnaires, at baseline (time 0), 35 days later (time 1), and another 32 days later (time 2). Setting. Secured Internet Web site. Subjects. A cohort of 735 adults was formed from a random sample of an existing Internet panel. The mean age was 37.5 years, 51% were women, and 90% were of Dutch origin. Most respondents (48%) had a medium level of education. Measures. Precaution adoption process model stage, risk perception, perception of own fruit intake level, attitude, pros, cons, subjective norms, social support, modeling, self-efficacy, and fruit intake (assessed using a food frequency questionnaire). Analysis. Cross-sectional differences in psychosocial variables and fruit intake across PAPM stages at baseline were analyzed using analysis of variance with Tukey multiple comparisons tests. Predictors of PAPM stage transitions between time 0 and time 1 and between time 1 and time 2 were analyzed using logistic regression analysis. Results. Factors related to attitude and social influences may be important if one is to decide to act, whereas strong self-efficacy may also be required for acting on the decision to act. Conclusion. Although the results should be replicated in a larger and more representative sample, the PAPM seems a good framework for studying fruit intake.

Communicating probability information about risks to the public is more difficult than might be expected. Many studies have examined this subject, so that their resulting recommendations are scattered over various publications, diverse research fields, and are about different presentation formats. An integration of empirical findings in one review would be useful therefore to describe the evidence base for communication about probability information and to present the recommendations that can be made so far. We categorized the studies in the following presentation formats: frequencies, percentages, base rates and proportions, absolute and relative risk reduction, cumulative probabilities, verbal probability information, numerical versus verbal probability information, graphs, and risk ladders. We suggest several recommendations for these formats. Based on the results of our review, we show that the effects of presentation format depend not only on the type of format, but also on the context in which the format is used. We therefore argue that the presentation format has the strongest effect when the receiver processes probability information heuristically instead of systematically. We conclude that future research and risk communication practitioners should not only concentrate on the presentation format of the probability information but also on the situation in which this message is presented, as this may predict how people process the information and how this may influence their interpretation of the risk.

The role of information processing in understanding people's responses to risk information has recently received substantial attention. One limitation of this research concerns the unavailability of a validated questionnaire of information processing. This article presents two studies in which we describe the development and validation of the Information‐Processing Questionnaire to meet that need. Study 1 describes the development and initial validation of the questionnaire. Participants were randomized to either a systematic processing or a heuristic processing condition after which they completed a manipulation check and the initial 15‐item questionnaire and again two weeks later. The questionnaire was subjected to factor reliability and validity analyses on both measurement times for purposes of cross‐validation of the results. A two‐factor solution was observed representing a systematic processing and a heuristic processing subscale. The resulting scale showed good reliability and validity, with the systematic condition scoring significantly higher on the systematic subscale and the heuristic processing condition significantly higher on the heuristic subscale. Study 2 sought to further validate the questionnaire in a field study. Results of the second study corresponded with those of Study 1 and provided further evidence of the validity of the Information‐Processing Questionnaire. The availability of this information‐processing scale will be a valuable asset for future research and may provide researchers with new research opportunities.

Risk communications are an integral aspect of health education and promotion. However, the commonly used textual risk information is relatively difficult to understand for the average recipient. Consequently, researchers and health promoters have started to focus on so‐called decision aids, such as tables and graphs. Although tabular and graphical risk information more effectively communicate risks than textual risk information, the cognitive mechanisms responsible for this enhancement are unclear. This study aimed to examine two possible mechanisms (i.e., cognitive workload and attention). Cognitive workload (mean pupil size and peak pupil dilation) and attention directed to the risk information (viewing time, number of eye fixations, and eye fixation durations) were both measured in a between‐subjects experimental design. The results suggest that graphical risk information facilitates comprehension of that information because it attracts and holds attention for a longer period of time than textual risk information. Graphs are thus a valuable asset to risk communication practice for two reasons: first, they tend to attract attention and, second, when attended to, they elicit information extraction with relatively little cognitive effort, and finally result in better comprehension.