The point of view of the EDF (French National Electricity Company) must be considered, but should not be predominant, as it has practically been up to now : the national energy policy which depends on long range previsions is the Government's business. But as there is no general agreement about the aims and the priorities, and about tomorrow's Society, the Government should keep different possibilities open for the future and not be bound by non reversible choices in the field of energy production.
All the factors which influence political decision-making may (reasonably) be integrated into a model which combines operational concepts of power, influence, and authority. The problem-solving approach is applied to one class of decisions, defined here as those made for social situations involving both technical and political factors. Political power seems necessarily to be engaged in a twofold form of activity. On the one hand it formulates the content of decisions to be made and is thereby affected by both the technical and political definition of the problem to be resolved. On the other hand, power is both an agent and an object of influence at every stage of the decisional process. Political power appears, then, to be a more comprehensive concept than either authority or influence. Its basic constituents are found in a fusion of the function of influence with the function of defining issues authoritatively. Authority is but one kind of influence while influence itself is simply one of the two chief functions of power.Power, before it is influential, is creative, inventive of ideas, and of solutions. Incorporation of these different categories into a model provides us with a systematic representation of the decision-making process of formulation, adoption, and execution. Particular attention is devoted to differentiating those components of behaviour on which authority is based from those which make the assessment of authority possible. On the whole, authoritative decision-making seems to be circumscribed by the original definition of the problem and by the decision-maker's personal under-standing. Up to a certain point this permits us to distinguish the part played by the force of given circumstances from that attributable to the free choice of the actors in a democratic political system. ; SCOPUS: ar.j ; info:eu-repo/semantics/published
A la suite des rapports Bertrand DE JOUVENEL et MÉO-BÉTOLAUD, le Gouvernement a décidé d'intensifier la production de bois, notamment de bois d'oeuvre et d'en mieux valoriser la transformation. Ces mesures sont compatibles avec les potentialités de la forêt française. ; Following the conclusions of the reports established by the Bertrand DE JOUVENEL group and MÉO-BÉTOLAUD, the french government decided to increase the timber production and to improve the industrial process and marketing. Thèse provisions are consistent with the growth potential of the french forests.
International audience ; Following the conclusions of the reports established by the Bertrand DE JOUVENEL group and MÉO-BÉTOLAUD, the french government decided to increase the timber production and to improve the industrial process and marketing. Thèse provisions are consistent with the growth potential of the french forests. ; A la suite des rapports Bertrand DE JOUVENEL et MÉO-BÉTOLAUD, le Gouvernement a décidé d'intensifier la production de bois, notamment de bois d'oeuvre et d'en mieux valoriser la transformation. Ces mesures sont compatibles avec les potentialités de la forêt française.
Intended to be an introduction to the Belgian law of work collective relations, the book puts strikes, trade unions, collective bargaining conventions in the framework of a general theory of the relationships necessary between mastery of the means of production, refusal to work and refusal to employment. ; Les relations de travail se déroulant dans des conditions qui dépendent en grande partie des menaces tantôt actuelles, tantôt virtuelles, de refus d'emploi et de refus de travail, l'auteur expose en quoi c'est principalement celle de refus de travail qui détermine l'importance des relations collectives. Aussi l'analyse du droit qui règle ces relations est-elle exposée dans un ordre peu traditionnel : après une Introduction consacrée à la maîtrise, assurée par le droit étatique, des biens de production, c'est par les conflits collectifs du travail qu'elle commence, par la grève plus que par le lock out ou par l'occupation d'usine (Ière Partie). Et de même que la réflexion sur les guerres conduit logiquement à examiner les armées et les traités, le droit des organisations syndicales (celui qu'elles tendent à produire et celui qui les vise) fait l'objet de la IIème Partie, la négociation et les conventions collectives de la IIIème. Moins importante, la IVème traite des relations collectives dans l'organisation de l'entreprise. ; D/1980/0023/14
(.) At the time when the flare subset theory gave its first applications in economic science, this result is quite intuitive. However, in the following lines, I propose that the cause should be examined in terms of the lack of precision which characterises consumer preferences, the rationality of which therefore becomes less inhuman than that of homo-economicus. Indeed, we know that the axioma of the existence of a preferential order presupposes a consumer with supra-rationality. For example, since an indifference curve is the expression of an infinite set of sets considered to be equivalent, the homo-economicus is supposed to be able to compare one thousand units of a good X and ten units of a good Y with an infinite number of other sets of those two goods. That reason exists only for economic theory. In fact, comparisons and choices are made on quantities which do not have the precision of the numbers they represent. After recalling the traditional framework of demand theory (0), we will assume that a consumer is capable of making comparisons between blurred sets, that is to say, to consider as equivalent 'approximately x units of good X with just less y units of good Y' and 'approximately x' units of X with just over y units of Y'. A vague demand, the graphic representation of which reflects Jean MARCHAL's 'spindle', will ultimately be derived by introducing budgetary constraints (in the sense of the traditional theory of consumer choices). This "weakened" rationality does not lead to an appetite for demand theory. On the contrary, it leads to a more general case where the traditional demand curve appears to be a particular case of the graphical expression of blurred demand. The analysis of consumption choices presented in this introduction is based on a very simple example which does not reveal all the concepts formed by economic theory. This simplification was necessary in so far as it was a question of establishing the general framework of the vague demand theory. ; (.) A l'heure où la théorie des ...
For almost ten years, from August 1914 to February 1924, the various Russian governments resorted to printing money in order to finance all or part of their expenses. This phenomena, incredible in and of itself for any specialist in monetary issues at the time, S. A. Fal'kner was going to study it starting in the Spring of 1918, not as a temporary expedient, a pathological manifestation, a "deviation from the norm", but as a durable situation, an emission economy, having its own rules of development, and being susceptible to be controlled and used par the Soviet power, as long it had analyzed correctly how it worked. Needless to say, it went against general opinion.Starting in 1923, on the basis of Fal'kner's ideas, O. Schmidt and V. Bazarov elaborate two models of mathematical laws of the emission economy. There will be a discussion at the Socialist Academy on whether the use of mathematical models in social sciences is legitimate. Kacenelenbaum, Yurovskii and Preobrazenskii disapproved of this kind of attempt.However running an emission economy has negative effects, especially for distribution since those who have fixed wages, such as salary workers, will be subject to most of the emission tax. Fal'kner proposes to put in place a rationing system and to set administered prices of basic necessities to regulate the system in order to reduce its disruptiveness on the national economy.Through a long process of trial and error, the Bolshevik government will finally succeed in putting an end to financing the country's budget by issuing paper money. Here again two opposite orientations will emerge: the iemission economy partisans, with Kuzovkov, will endorse a progressive stability of the paper-ruble, whereas the "orthodox" monetary issues specialists, whether they be Marxists such as Sokol'nikov, or former tzariste Secretary, such as Kutler, will endorse a completely different monetary unit and the adoption of the gold-currency. ; Pendant presque dix ans, d'Août 1914 à Février 1924, les différents gouvernements ...
For almost ten years, from August 1914 to February 1924, the various Russian governments resorted to printing money in order to finance all or part of their expenses. This phenomena, incredible in and of itself for any specialist in monetary issues at the time, S. A. Fal'kner was going to study it starting in the Spring of 1918, not as a temporary expedient, a pathological manifestation, a "deviation from the norm", but as a durable situation, an emission economy, having its own rules of development, and being susceptible to be controlled and used par the Soviet power, as long it had analyzed correctly how it worked. Needless to say, it went against general opinion.Starting in 1923, on the basis of Fal'kner's ideas, O. Schmidt and V. Bazarov elaborate two models of mathematical laws of the emission economy. There will be a discussion at the Socialist Academy on whether the use of mathematical models in social sciences is legitimate. Kacenelenbaum, Yurovskii and Preobrazenskii disapproved of this kind of attempt.However running an emission economy has negative effects, especially for distribution since those who have fixed wages, such as salary workers, will be subject to most of the emission tax. Fal'kner proposes to put in place a rationing system and to set administered prices of basic necessities to regulate the system in order to reduce its disruptiveness on the national economy.Through a long process of trial and error, the Bolshevik government will finally succeed in putting an end to financing the country's budget by issuing paper money. Here again two opposite orientations will emerge: the iemission economy partisans, with Kuzovkov, will endorse a progressive stability of the paper-ruble, whereas the "orthodox" monetary issues specialists, whether they be Marxists such as Sokol'nikov, or former tzariste Secretary, such as Kutler, will endorse a completely different monetary unit and the adoption of the gold-currency. ; Pendant presque dix ans, d'Août 1914 à Février 1924, les différents gouvernements ...
For almost ten years, from August 1914 to February 1924, the various Russian governments resorted to printing money in order to finance all or part of their expenses. This phenomena, incredible in and of itself for any specialist in monetary issues at the time, S. A. Fal'kner was going to study it starting in the Spring of 1918, not as a temporary expedient, a pathological manifestation, a "deviation from the norm", but as a durable situation, an emission economy, having its own rules of development, and being susceptible to be controlled and used par the Soviet power, as long it had analyzed correctly how it worked. Needless to say, it went against general opinion.Starting in 1923, on the basis of Fal'kner's ideas, O. Schmidt and V. Bazarov elaborate two models of mathematical laws of the emission economy. There will be a discussion at the Socialist Academy on whether the use of mathematical models in social sciences is legitimate. Kacenelenbaum, Yurovskii and Preobrazenskii disapproved of this kind of attempt.However running an emission economy has negative effects, especially for distribution since those who have fixed wages, such as salary workers, will be subject to most of the emission tax. Fal'kner proposes to put in place a rationing system and to set administered prices of basic necessities to regulate the system in order to reduce its disruptiveness on the national economy.Through a long process of trial and error, the Bolshevik government will finally succeed in putting an end to financing the country's budget by issuing paper money. Here again two opposite orientations will emerge: the iemission economy partisans, with Kuzovkov, will endorse a progressive stability of the paper-ruble, whereas the "orthodox" monetary issues specialists, whether they be Marxists such as Sokol'nikov, or former tzariste Secretary, such as Kutler, will endorse a completely different monetary unit and the adoption of the gold-currency. ; Pendant presque dix ans, d'Août 1914 à Février 1924, les différents gouvernements ...
La crise que nous vivons, sans précédent dans l'histoire, touche la société humaine toute entière, constitue une crise de l'espèce. Aujourd'hui que la science se trouve si décriée n'est-il pas dérisoire de s'interroger sur ce que peuvent apporter les sciences du comportement à sa résolution? Malgré les nombreux obstacles envisageables, une analyse expérimentale du comportement dans la perspective behavioriste devrait pousser à l'implantation d'une politique expérimentale, actuellement étrangère à tous les usages (règne des partis, objectif du pouvoir, circulation limitée des informations, abus des renforcements immédiats). Une telle politique expérimentale devrait générer des citoyens actifs et diversifiés. ; The contemporary crisis, new in history, affects the whole human society, constitutes a crisis of the species. Today, when science is so descredited, can we seriously propose the use of behavioral methods for solution. In spite of many anticipated difficulties, an experimental analysis of behavior must bring forward the implantation of experimental politics, unknown to the present habits of political parties with their struggles for power, the limited access to informations, the abuse of immediate reinforcers. Such experimental politics would have as objective the emergence of an active and multifarious citizen.
Ainsi, le cercle se referme. A chaque mouvement du système, le chercheur intervient, soit pour aider planificateurs et maîtres à évaluer et à expérimenter, soit pour faire le travail lui-même. Aucune exclusive n'est prononcée, aucune suprématie n'est revendiquée dans l'œuvre d'enseignement : philosophes, politiques, administrateurs, maîtres et chercheurs sont, chacun, indispensables au tout.
Dans une introduction générale, l'auteur distingue les innovations essentielles, indissociables de changements d'objectifs généraux de l'éducation, et les innovations contingentes, dont beaucoup ne sont que pseudo-innovations. Les aspects positif et négatif de la résistance à l'innovation sont ensuite discutés. Dans un premier chapitre, on démontre d'abord que la vitesse de pénétration de l'innovation dépend à la fois de l'acuité du besoin ressenti par la société et de l'objet de l'innovation. Quatre cas extrêmes sont présentés de façon théorique, puis illustrés. Les trois moments du processus éducatif (choix des objectifs - mise en œuvre des moyens pour les atteindre - évaluation) sont ensuite considérés. Enfin, quelques cas particuliers précisent et élargissent le débat : objectifs généraux modifiés sans les moyens de la politique nouvelle ; innovation matérielle sans support théorique innovation matérielle de façade ; innovation spécifique. Le deuxième chapitre est consacré à la démonstration expérimentale de la faible influence de l'innovation dans la pratique scolaire. Dans la conclusion générale, enfin, quinze causes de la résistance à l'innovation sont citées.
This article deals with recent developments of urbanized space in Belgium. Using data on industry, arterial roads and housing, it tries to es-timate the. true impact of these different activities and to set out the es-sential part played by the types of spatial organizations. II also introduces a fundamental consideration which should serve a more efficient policy for town and country planning. ; Cet article présente l'évolution récente de l'espace urbanisé en Belgique. A travers les données relatives aux industries, aux voies de communication et aux logements, il tente de mesurer l'impact réel de ces différentes activités et de mettre en évidence le rôle essentiel joué par les types d'organisation spatiale. Il introduit ainsi une réflexion de base devant servir une politique plus efficace d'aménagement du territoire. ; Peer reviewed
La sélection à l'entrée à l'université est économiquement nécessaire et humainement souhaitable, à condition qu'elle prenne un caractère positif et respecte la démocratie. Le problème est suffisamment grave, à tous points de vue, pour ne pas prendre aucun risque inconsidéré et, moins encore, pour se fixer à une théorie ou à une intuition en l'air. Une période d'expérimentation, rigoureusement planifiée et contrôlée, devrait intervenir avant toute décision engageant vraiment le sort des individus.
Periodic Moroccan Economic and Social Bulletin ; N° 123-124-125 ; Periodic Moroccan Economic and Social Bulletin ; Périodiques Bulletin économique et social du Maroc ; Periodic Moroccan Economic and Social Bulletin ; BESM-article_123-124-125-10
