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Muhammad Zia Mehmood is a PhD candidate in the Business and Public Policy Program at the Haas School of Business, UC Berkeley. In his job market paper, Zia studies the demand for and potential of business trainings provided over text messages to impact outcomes for micro-entrepreneurs in Kenya. This study was supported by CEGA's Development Economics Challenge initiative. This blog post was originally published on the Econ That Really Matters blog.A small business welder at work. Credit: Adobe StockIntroductionSmall businesses form the economic backbone of low-income countries and strengthening these enterprises is fundamental to alleviating poverty. Poor management practices is a major factor constraining firm productivity in these contexts, and over $1 billion is spent annually to address this constraint by providing business trainings to entrepreneurs. However, most of these are conventional, in-person, classroom-style trainings, which are expensive and hard to scale, and can exclude those who are unable to participate in person. Due to their low costs, scalability, and reach, phone-based trainings are gaining popularity as a potential solution, but there is limited evidence on whether remotely provided trainings are effective for micro-entrepreneurs in low-income settings.In my job market paper, I study the demand for and potential of text message-based business trainings using a field experiment in Kenya, in which access to an SMS-based training was randomized across 4,700 micro-entrepreneurs. I estimate short- and longer-run impacts using phone-based surveys conducted three months (Midline: 307 observations) and twelve months (Endline: 2,780 observations) after the intervention. I also elicit ex ante predictions for 12-month treatment effects from researchers through the Social Science Predictions Platform (SSPP), to assess whether the main findings depart from existing priors. Finally, I measure demand for the trainings through Take-It-Or-Leave-It (TIOLI) offers and the Becker-DeGroot-Marschak (BDM) willingness-to-pay elicitation method for a subset of the sample.Context and InterventionAccording to a 2016 nationwide survey of small businesses in Kenya, 90 percent of micro-entrepreneurs had never received any type of business training. This was reflected in their business practices: More than three-fourths did not advertise any of their products, over two-thirds didn't keep any business records, and less than a tenth accounted for prices set by their competitors when choosing their own prices.I partnered with a local firm specializing in digital content development and dissemination to implement an SMS-based training aimed at addressing these management gaps and others. Available in English and Swahili, the training modules covered best practices, including marketing, advertising, pricing, record-keeping, and stock management. The content was structured around stories about the decisions of hypothetical micro-entrepreneurs in different scenarios. Users accessed the trainings through self-paced engagement with an interactive chat-bot, which sent bite-sized chunks spanning about 150 text messages. The entire training could be completed in five to seven hours, and all content was retained indefinitely on users' phones. Weekly text reminders were sent to those who stopped engaging, and these reminders stopped if engagement was resumed or after two consecutive months of inactivity.The primary sample for the study was sourced from a list of micro-entrepreneurs compiled by my implementation partner and a local microfinance institution. Half of the study sample consists of female micro-entrepreneurs, and roughly 45 percent is based in rural areas. The average individual was about 35 years old, and had completed almost twelve years of education (high school level).Figure 1: Screenshots of user engagement with the chatbot. Note: This figure shows screenshots of interactions with the SMS-based chatbot as it pushes out content to users. In this context, most micro-entrepreneurs set prices just based on their buying costs, without accounting for prices of their competitors, so the content pushes them to change their pricing strategy. Credit: Muhammad Zia MehmoodResultsThree months after the intervention, I find that the SMS training increased knowledge and adoption of best practices by 0.20 and 0.33 standard deviations, respectively. I also find large positive, but statistically insignificant, effects on business performance in the overall sample, and significant positive effects for younger (below-median) micro-entrepreneurs on sales (109 percent increase), profits (38 percent increase), and business survival (11.6 percentage points increase). These positive effects for younger entrepreneurs are driven by higher engagement with the content, and larger effects on time spent on business, and loan amounts applied for and received.However, these positive results dissipate in the longer run; twelve months after the intervention, I see no effects on knowledge and adoption of best practices, as well as business sales, profits and survival. Additionally, the positive effects on business outcomes observed for younger entrepreneurs at three months disappear after twelve months. The lack of long-term impact was likely driven by micro-entrepreneurs abandoning all interactions with the content within the first few months of the intervention. The survival curve in Figure 2 shows how all cumulative aggregate engagement with the platform ended by May 2022 — five months into the intervention.Figure 2: Survival curve of interactions with chatbot. Note: This figure illustrates how interactions with the chatbot were distributed throughout the study period. The plot shows reverse cumulative engagement over time; for example, it shows that 80% of all the interactions with the chat-bot throughout the course of the study, had ended by 4/1/2022. The shaded areas represent the time-spans during which the Midline and Endline surveys were conducted. Credit: Muhammad Zia MehmoodFigure 3: Predictions vs observed treatment effects. Note: This figure shows how predicted treatment effects for the Endline compare with observed Midline and Endline effects. Error bars represent 90% confidence intervals. Credit: Muhammad Zia MehmoodFigure 3 illustrates how these results compare with predictions for 12-month treatment effects elicited ex ante through the SSPP. I find that SSPP researchers overestimated the engagement levels, both in terms of the proportion of the treatment group that would start engaging with the content (50 percent vs 30 percent) and how much training content the average user would complete after twelve months (40 percent vs 7 percent). Furthermore, predictions for the 12-month treatment effects on knowledge and adoption of best practices are somewhat similar to observed effects at three months, but significantly overestimated in light of observed 12-month treatment effects. Effects on business performance offer a similar story: SSPP predictions for the 12-month treatment effects on sales and profits are similar in magnitude to effects observed at three months (albeit statistically insignificant), but they grossly overestimate the effects at twelve months.Additionally, notwithstanding the low engagement and lack of longer-run effects, I find positive demand for SMS-based trainings among micro-entrepreneurs; both methods of elicitation — the TIOLI offers and the BDM exercise — reveal that individuals are willing to pay a small amount for an additional SMS-based training, suggesting that they value access to the content.Policy ImplicationsThese results indicate that SMS-based trainings are unlikely to improve outcomes for micro-entrepreneurs in the long run, despite their growing popularity in low-income and less accessible settings. These findings also highlight the lack of engagement with trainings as a major challenge that limits the potential of remotely-provided information-based support.Further, the forecasting exercise reveals that social science researchers overestimate the potential of SMS-based trainings to improve outcomes for micro-entrepreneurs, and the findings from this study are thus contrary to priors. Updating these priors is important because policymakers and practitioners often rely on social science experts to make decisions about how to invest in remote, information-based support programs.Lastly, the results on willingness to pay suggest that engagement with the content might not reflect the actual demand for SMS-based trainings, pointing towards possible behavioral drivers constraining engagement. To capitalize on the full potential of digital content delivery in low-income settings, further research is needed to shed light on how to encourage engagement with remotely provided content.Short Messages Fall Short for Micro-Entrepreneurs: Experimental Evidence from Kenya was originally published in CEGA on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

In his seminal 1957 book "The Copernican Revolution," Thomas Kuhn writes that Copernicus' "astronomical innovation" was characterized by a "plurality" that "transcends the competence of the individual scholar." Studying the Copernican Revolution, he said, provides an "ideal opportunity to discover how and with what effect the concepts of many different fields are woven into a single fabric of thought."There is a similar plurality of thought present in "How Sanctions Work: Iran and the Impact of Economic Warfare" (Stanford University Press) by Narges Bajoghli, Vali Nasr, Djavad Salehi-Isfahani, and Ali Vaez. Like astronomy, the study of sanctions transcends the competence of the individual scholar. The four authors bring diverse expertise to the task of understanding the workings of sanctions. Bajoghli is a sociologist, Nasr is a political scientist, Salehi-Isfahani is an economist, and Vaez trained as a nuclear physicist before turning towards security issues.Studies on the efficacy of sanctions policies tend to focus on policy design — are they unilateral or multilateral measures, are they are primary or secondary sanctions, and what sectors, entities, or individuals do they target? In these studies, the country imposing sanctions is placed at the center of the system, exerting forces on the sanctioned countries in its orbit. The Copernican aspect of "How Sanctions Work" is its insistence that a true understanding of sanctions efficacy arises not from an analysis of the policies, but rather from an analysis of the society and economy on which they are imposed.Setting out their aim for the book, the authors declare that "policymakers and pundits" inquiring "do sanctions work?" are asking the wrong question. That question fixates on the power of the sanctioning country and has an obvious answer. "When a country with the size and economic power of the United States imposes harsh sanctions on a country, of course they 'work': sanctions create massive disruptions in the everyday lives of citizens, impact the political culture of the targeted state, and induce shocks in the economy."The better question, the authors contend, is "do sanctions work the way they 'should'?" This inquiry puts "behavioral changes in targeted states" at the center of the model. It also allows for a more sensitive examination of how sanctions may harm ordinary people, an insight no doubt furnished by the authors' personal connections to Iran.Until recently, Western policymakers have maintained a dogmatic belief in the efficacy of sanctions despite the fact that they had clearly failed to achieve their intended policy outcomes in most countries on which they had been applied, most notably Cuba, Iran, Iraq, Syria, North Korea, Venezuela, and Russia. But, like St. Augustine, who counseled against trying to understand the workings of the heavens, policymakers committed to sanctions policy felt it was "not necessary to probe into the nature of things."In 2018, the Trump administration unilaterally imposed "maximum pressure" sanctions on Iran, raising new concerns about the abuse of sanctions. But even as many former sanctions practitioners warned about the overuse of economic coercion, it was clear that sanctions would remain a mainstay of U.S. foreign policy. As Dan Drezner has observed, "two decades of war, recession, polarization, and now pandemic have dented American power. Frustrated U.S. presidents are left with fewer arrows in their quiver, and they are quick to reach for the easy, available tools of sanctions."In 2021, spurred by the Trump administration's brazen use of sanctions, which had frustrated allies and provoked adversaries, the Biden administration undertook an interagency review of its sanctions policy with the aim of ensuring that "economic and financial sanctions remain an effective tool of U.S. national security and foreign policy now and in the future." The review set out steps to "modernize sanctions," including by ensuring that sanctions policy is informed by "rigorous economic analysis, technical expertise, and intelligence to ensure that they are the right tool in our national security arsenal to pursue the identified objective." In May 2023, the Treasury Department Office of Foreign Asset Control hired a chief sanctions economist for the first time. Belatedly, policymakers in Washington are beginning to probe into the nature of their sanctions policies.A similar effort to better understand sanctions is also underway in sanctioned countries themselves. Despite the tremendous impact of sanctions on economic and social circumstances in Iran, it is only in the last few years that sanctions have been studied on their own terms. Prominent think tanks in Iran now have dedicated sanctions experts whose task is to understand how U.S. sanctions work and assess the costs borne by Iran's economy.For the analysts in Washington and Tehran newly evaluating sanctions and their effects, How Sanctions Work is a valuable resource. By centering the targeted country in the discussion of sanctions efficacy, Bajoghli, Nasr, Salehi-Isfahani, and Vaez demonstrate what a case study on sanctions should look like. To answer the question of how sanctions should work, it is necessary to describe how they are perceived in the target country.The book's first chapter does not begin with a discussion of what sanctions are, how they are designed, or their economic effects. Instead, we read about Fariba, a retired teacher, who recounts the precarious position she faces in Iran's sanctioned economy. Fariba once "led a solidly middle-class life in Tehran" but now constantly worries about how to get her diminished income to "stretch as far as possible."When in the third chapter we finally turn to the impact of sanctions on Iran's economy, we can interpret the assembled statistics with greater sensitivity. For example, when we read that "between 2011 and 2019, some 9 million people lost their middle-class status and joined the ranks of the lower-middle class and perhaps even the poor," we think back to Fariba and her struggle to make ends meet. This is the formal innovation that makes "How Sanctions Work" an important contribution. The authors are not presenting a great deal of new information, but rather presenting existing research in a new way. The book emerges from a series of research papers commissioned by the authors and published by Johns Hopkins SAIS (I was the author of one of those papers). The book also draws on eighty "long-form oral history interviews," including with Iranian researchers studying sanctions impacts. The authors weave together the findings of these papers and interviews with insights from the growing body of sanctions research, creating a first-of-its-kind cosmology of sanctions—a description of their forces, the bodies acted upon, and the orbits and trajectories altered.Again, a parallel can be drawn between "How Sanctions Work" and Copernicus' "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres," which Kuhn describes as a "relatively staid, sober, and unrevolutionary work." For Kuhn, the book's significance lies "less in what it says itself than in what it caused others to say. In other words, Copernicus had written a "revolution-making rather than revolutionary text." Kuhn's later scholarship established how the application of new "paradigms" advances scientific knowledge. Without the right paradigm, those who wish to innovate, whether scientists or policymakers, will not even know the right questions to ask."How Sanctions Work" concludes by calling for a paradigm shift in our appraisals of sanctions policy. "With the United States sanctioning larger economies such as Russia, and threatening more punishing sanctions on a country like China, it behooves us all— as scholars, policymakers, and concerned citizens — to critically examine economic sanctions. Put another way, it is time to understand how sanctions really work."

 In 2019, I wrote about an article in the New York Times "1619 Project," which drew on a paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in 2016:   "Racial Bias in Pain Assessment and Treatment Recommendations, and False Beliefs about Biological Differences between Blacks and Whites." The paper was based on a survey of medical students and residents that gave them hypothetical cases and asked them to rate how much pain they thought the patient would be feeling and what treatment they would recommend for the pain (narcotics vs. something weaker).*  According to the Times "when asked to imagine how much pain white or black patients experienced in hypothetical situations, the medical students and residents insisted that black people felt less pain."  Actually, the ratings were almost identical--the mean for black cases was 7.622 on a scale of 0-10, and the mean for whites was 7.626--so the description in the Times story was completely wrong.  Basically what the study found was that the number of false beliefs was associated with racial bias, but at the average level of false believes there was no bias in either direction. Last year I saw another Times story that referred to the paper as "an often-cited study," and I checked and found it had about 1400 citations, according to Google Scholar.  After the Supreme Court decision on affirmative action, I ran across another article that mentioned it (I forget where that appeared), which led me to check the citation count again.  It was up to almost 2000, and is now over 2,000.   That's a lot:  it ranks 6th out of the couple of thousand papers published in PNAS in 2016.  Presumably the 1619 project story helped to bring attention to it, but it was already doing well before then:  it had 25 citations in 2016, then 54, 103, and 152 in 2017-9.  I was interested in seeing how well the academic literature did in describing the findings of the paper.   Google Scholar lists citing articles roughly in order of the citations that they have, so I started from the top and picked the first 20 with over 100 citations (a couple of books were listed, but I limited myself to journal articles).  One of the citations could be called incidental:  "Contemporary, 'mainstream' epidemiology's technocratic focus on individual-level biological and behavioral risk factors"Four of them were accurate, in my judgment:  "a recent study showed that half of medical students and residents in their sample held biased beliefs such as 'Black people's skin is thicker than White people's skin,' assessed Black mock patients' pain as lower than White mock patients, and subsequently made less accurate treatment recommendations for Black compared to White mock patients.""medical students who endorsed the false beliefs that Black patients had longer nerve endings and thicker skin than White patients also rated Black patients as feeling less pain and offered less accurate treatment recommendations in mock medical cases." "in a 2016 study to assess racial attitudes, half of White medical students and residents held unfounded beliefs about intrinsic biologic differences between Black people and White people. These false beliefs were associated with assessments of Black patients' pain as being less severe than that of White patients and with less appropriate treatment decisions for Black patients.""and a substantial number of medical students and trainees hold false beliefs about racial differences."Four were partly accurate:   "Implicit bias among clinicians and other healthcare workers can . . . contribute to . . . lower quality of care received . . . .""document false beliefs among medical students and residents regarding race-based biological differences in pain tolerance that resulted in racial differences in treatment." "minorities . . . are less likely to have their pain appropriately diagnosed and effectively treated due to structural constraints, racialized stereotypes, and false beliefs regarding genetic differences on the part of health care providers." "contemporary examples of anti-Black racism in healthcare in North America include racial bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations between White and Black patients based on false beliefs about biological differences"These correctly say that the study found evidence that views about biological differences were associated with differences in pain assessment and treatment, but fall short because they either imply that the study involved treatment of real cases or that it found differences in average levels of pain assessment.  Ten were inaccurate--I don't mean that the statements are necessarily false, but the study provided no support for them:"Racist beliefs among some providers that African Americans have unusually higher tolerance for pain . . .  may also have reduced opioid prescribing to African Americans relative to whites." "false assumptions about Black-White physiologic differences in pain tolerance" "Black patients have been subjected to racially stratified diagnoses resulting in the denial of pain medication, based on the belief that they withstand pain better than other demarcated groups." "Currently, Black patients also are less likely to receive . . . adequate doses of pain and cancer medication" "A substantial literature in psychology has documented physicians' differential perceptions of Black patients in terms of . . . pain tolerance." "there are known racial and socioeconomic biases in how a patient's pain is perceived by observers" "Black patients are less likely to receive . . . accurate diagnoses (e.g., pain assessments)" "Demographic factors associated with chronic pain and its undertreatment include . . . being an African American or other underrepresented minority . . . ." "The backdrop for such discussions includes systemic and pervasive racial biases in the US healthcare system, including lack of insurance and a lesser quality of care for non-white, rural, and low-income populations" "perceptions of suffering are shaped by various factors such as the victim's race"The most common mistakes were citing it as evidence of racial differences in pain assessments or in prescription of pain medication (rather than recommendations for hypothetical cases).And one cited this study while describing a completely different one:  "Black mothers in the wealthiest neighborhoods in Brooklyn, New York have worse outcomes than white, Hispanic, and Asian mothers in the poorest ones, …. likely due to societal bias that impacts Black women."I don't know what's typical, but more than 50% inaccurate citations is disturbing.   Another striking thing was that I didn't find any efforts to replicate the study.  It had an obvious limitation:  the sample was just students and residents at one medical school.  So it would be natural to try to replicate it at other medical schools, or among practicing physicians.  You could also go beyond straight replication, and do things like consider other hypothetical cases (e. g., ones that were more ambiguous), or the possibility of interactions between race and other factors like gender.  The data were from an online survey, so replicating it would be cheap and easy--I could see giving it as a project for a master's student or even an undergraduate.  Of course, I can't say that there are no published replications, but I made enough effort to be confident that there aren't many.  Is that because of a lack of attempts, or because attempts haven't found anything, so they haven't been published?***There was also a survey of Mechanical Turk participants, but that doesn't get much attention.  **The evidence in the original study was weak--there's a good chance that it's just a combination of random variation and what Andrew Gelman calls "researcher degrees of freedom."

(This post is an interlude between history and VARs) Jesper Rangvid has a great blog post today on different inflation measures. CPI and PCE core inflation (orange and gray) are how the US calculates inflation less food and energy, but including housing. We do an economically sophisticated measure that tries to measure the "cost of housing" by rents for those who rent, plus how much a homeowner pays by "renting" the house to him or herself. You can quickly come up with the plus and minus of that approach, especially for looking at month to month trends in inflation. Europe in the "HICP core" line doesn't even try and leaves owner occupied housing out altogether. Jesper's point: if you measure inflation Europe's way, US inflation is already back to 2%. The Fed can hang out a "mission accomplished" banner. (Or, in my view, a "it went away before we really had to do anything serious about it" banner.) And, since he writes to a European audience, Europe has a long way to go. A few deeper (and slightly grumpier) points: Notice just here how different measures of inflation broadly correlated, but are 1-2% different from each other. Well, inflation is imprecisely measured. Get used to that and stop worrying too much about anything past the decimal point. All this business about core vs. headline, hosing vs nonhousing, PCE vs. CPI, inflation is fine all except for three categories, and so forth is a bit confusing. In the end, inflation is inflation, and all goods matter. You pay for food, energy, and housing. So why ignore these? Why not use the most comprehensive measure always? The best number we have for the overall rise of the cost of living in the US is the full PCE, including all households, and food, energy, and housing. Inflation is not over and the mission not accomplished until it is over, and that includes food energy and housing. Why is it not just sophistry to say "well, inflation is back to 2% except for food energy and housing, so the fight is over?" "Every ship but your four fastest" is not "every ship."  The usual (implicit) argument is that core inflation is a better predictor of overall inflation a year from now than is today's full inflation. Food and energy prices have upward and downward spikes that predictably reverse themselves. The argument must be similar for leaving out imputed rents. There are predictable housing price dynamics in how house prices and rents feed into each other, and how rents on new leases propagate to rents of old ones when they roll over. That one might have some behavioral argument that households being both landlord and tenant don't feel the pain and don't adjust behavior as quickly in response to opportunity costs as renters do to out of pocket costs. But that should be reflected in what you do with the number rather than leaving it out of the data. More generally, why do people indulge in this economist nerd pastime of slicing and dicing inflation to what went up and what went down and how might it be different if we left this or that out? Figuring out what it means for overall inflation in the future is the only reason I can see for it. (Perhaps figuring out whose inflation went up or down more than someone else's is also a reason to do it.) But this ought to be a lot more rigorous. If the point is, we look at core today because core is a better forecast of inflation a year from now than inflation today, let's see the regression evidence. Is it true that All goods and services inflation a year from now = a + b x Core inflation today + errorproduces a better forecast than All goods and services inflation a year from now = a + b x All goods and services inflation today + error?That is not the exact regression you'd run, of course. I might start with PCE (t+1) = a + b x PCE(t) + c x (Core(t)-PCE(t)) + error. And we want to include other variables really. If the game is to forecast PCE a year from now, then you want an appropriate kitchen sink on the right hand side, up to overfitting. Just how important is core vs. pce in that kitchen sink? How much does looking at all the various components of inflation help to forecast inflation? Let's put those expiring lease dynamics in to forecast housing inflation, explicitly. I suspect the answer is that all of this does not help much. My memory of Jim Stock and Mark Watson's work on forecasting inflation with lots of right hand variables is that it's really hard to forecast inflation. But that was 20 years ago. So I'll leave this as a question for commenters. How can we  best forecast inflation?  How does looking at various components of inflation help you to forecast the overall quantity? This must be a question with a well established answer, no? Send your favorite papers in the comments. (If you can't get blogger's horrible comment system to work send email.) If not, it's today's suggestion for low hanging fruit paper topic! How looking at components does or does not help to forecast overall inflation is a really important question. A last comment: People look at all the various components of inflation, but don't ever (that I have seen) cite forecasting overall inflation as the explicit question. They quite often say that the component view suggests inflation is or isn't going to rise in the future, so I'm imputing this as the question. If not, what is the question? Why are we looking at components? In so many areas, it's interesting that people so seldom state the question to which they proffer answers. Update:Why be lazy? I know how to run regressions. Sample 1960:1-2023:6, monthly data, forecasting one-year inflation from lagged one-year inflation, overlapping data with Newey-West corrected t statistics, 24 lags. I include a constant in each regression, omitted in the table. Fred series fedfunds, cpilfesl, cpiaucsl.CPICoreCore-CPICore-CPI levelR2 0.740.55(7.19)0.77 0.47(5.55) 0.76 -0.02 0.55(2.42) (-0.05) 0.74 -0.02 0.55(6.09) (-0.05) 0.77 0.04 0.55(8.11) (0.79) Row 1, inflation is forecastable by lagged inflation with an 0.74 AR(1) coefficient. That Fed dot plots always look like an AR(1) with an 0.74 coefficient is pretty sensible. Row 2, core inflation also forecasts inflation. But the R2 is lower. Inflation forecasts itself better than core. Row 3, in a multiple regression, core does nothing to help to forecast inflation. Row 4, the difference between core and inflation does nothing to forecast inflation. Row 5, to capture long term trends and transitory inflation, you might think that the difference between the core and headline CPI levels helps to forecast CPI inflation. Nope. This is way worse than I thought. I thought Core would help a bit. I believed that food and energy would have temporary variation which core would tell us to ignore. Perhaps the standard "supply shock" story has some merit. Food or energy goes up because of a supply shock. The Fed or fiscal policy then accommodates the supply shock with more demand, so that wages and other prices catch up with the headline rather than making headline go back down again. Update:A good blog post making the case that core is better. Two important differences: 1) Sample restricted to after 1983, so not evaluating its use during the one big inflation and disinflation 2) Pure number, no regression. I.e. how does measure x forecast inflation, not a + b x measure x. Also a good Jason Furman tweet

Jennifer Huddleston


Much like little children who are losing a game, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and Department of Justice (DOJ) have decided to change the rules that govern when they engage in enforcement actions to intervene in mergers. These proposed changes follow several recent losses in court, and they are designed to increase the enforcers' chances at deterring mergers. The draft of the DOJ/FTC merger guidelines released in July 2023 indicates concerning potential changes that would take the focus off objective economics and the consumer and, instead, place more emphasis on subjective political and policy preferences of enforcers to engage in more intervention in a variety of industries. This is because these guidelines rely on faulty policy presumptions about the nature of mergers based on selectively chosen case law and shift away from sound economics.
The changes in these draft proposed new guidelines are significant and will have a negative impact on companies of all sizes and consumers, as well as allow more government interference in the economy in general. While there is much more to dig into with the specifics of these new guidelines, at a high level they are particularly concerning for the shift away from a long‐​standing focus on consumers.
New guidelines shift away from sound economics
One of the most significant trends is that the new draft guidelines shift standards without providing much, if any, economic reasoning for such changes. This is most notable in the lowering of the threshold for concentration to be considered a potential issue in whether there is a harm to competition. The proposed guidelines are much more concerned about the potential number of players in a market and the share of any one player, but notably, such changes are not backed up by economics or past examples.
As Brian Albrecht points out, economics questions the idea that concentration correlates to an anti‐​competitive effect. Similarly, others have discussed how increased concentration does not mean higher prices for consumers. In fact, it would punish firms from improving efficiency in ways that lead to lower prices as such actions can lead to increased concentration due to consumer response to lower prices.
This shift in guidelines suggests that rather than relying on objective standards and looking to consumer welfare, enforcers at the DOJ and FTC are instead choosing the levels of concentration they believe will most likely allow them to succeed in the cases they want to bring. History shows that presumptions and predictions from regulators may miss what is actually occurring in a market, as well as what would play out if consumers were the ones to make the choices about products. Such a shift away from economic reasoning, however, is likely to result in the agency intervening more subjectively in a range of markets —including technology — and preventing mergers that would prove to be beneficial from occurring.
New guidelines selectively choose case law
The new merger guidelines rely significantly on case law, but not on sound precedent. In fact, the case law relied upon largely comes from the 1970s or even earlier and ignores more recent precedents. This illustrates how, once again, the FTC's approach is not actually "updating" rules to handle a novel challenge, but a return to the past and its problems of more subjective standards.
These proposed revised guidelines are backed up by selectively drawing upon case law in ways that would position enforcers to be more likely to win cases regardless of their impact on consumers. This practice even extends to cherry‐​picking dictums from these cases. For instance, when attempting to implement a preemptive strategy to hinder mergers without apparent harm to competition, the FTC leans on dictum stemming from non‐​binding case law, such as United States v. Microsoft Corp. 253 F.3d 34, 79 (D.C. Cir. 2001). This reference stands out, given that it is a decision from the D.C. Circuit over two decades old and used to interpret the spirit of the Sherman Act.
As Gus Hurwitz tweets, while many of these cases are technically "good law", this is largely due to the fact that previous guidelines for agency enforcement have led to more informal behavioral changes and settlements that meant courts have not had the opportunity to formally repudiate them in the past. The selective nature of the new guidelines is likely to meet skepticism from courts more familiar with the entire body of law and could, in fact, result in more formal repudiation of the cases on which the guidelines are based. Agency officials seeking to enforce under the new guidelines could find themselves worse off than they are now by providing courts a more formal opportunity to overturn these outdated precedents and diminish the courts' view of the soundness of the agency's guidelines.
The myth of the "kill zone" rises again
Proponents of stricter merger guidelines and deterring mergers and acquisitions, particularly in the technology sector, often point to the idea that large companies kill off nascent rivals through acquisitions. This, however, misunderstands the role mergers and acquisitions play and instead should serve as a reminder that new guidelines will harm small and large companies by limiting their options.
Making mergers and acquisitions more difficult eliminates one exit strategy for companies. Some small companies may be seeking to make an existing product better, and they find being acquired by that product's original developer is the best way to reach a wider audience. Others may find that they enjoy being entrepreneurs or creating new products, but they have no desire to manage the many aspects that come with a growing company. Some may find that they do want to challenge existing giants and remain independent and eventually "go public" via an initial public offering (IPO). All of these should be considered valid strategies in different situations, but the added difficulty and scrutiny of the revised merger guidelines would make it more difficult for those small companies whose preferred strategy involves acquisition.
Beyond the reasons for exit, the idea of a "kill zone" — or any other justifications for changes to existing evaluations of mergers and acquisitions — neglects to consider the various benefits of these transactions in the market. In the tech sector, mergers are often about talent as well as product, a practice known as acquihiring. Consumers benefit from new collaborations not only from the products, but from the creative and talented individuals in charge of their creation and distribution. Of course, mergers can also create more solid competitors, which may provide consumers with broader access to a range of options.
Finally, the idea of a "kill zone" for new players in a given market has largely proven false, whether analyzed through new entry or investment.
The bottom line: the real losers in the new merger guidelines are the consumers
Much of the discussion around the new merger guidelines will focus on the impact on businesses, both large and small, and particularly how it relates to the ongoing debates around "Big Tech." The bottom line is consumers are ultimately the ones that will feel the brunt of the negative impact if enforcement shifts away from sound economics and law and focuses more on competitors than consumers. Beyond this, new guidelines will likely stifle beneficial deals and result in costly litigation for taxpayers and businesses, ultimately passing along to consumers. While there are certainly consequences for the tech sector in such changes, this significant shift in enforcement guidance will impact a wide variety of industries and their consumers.

ABSTRAK Lingkungan rumah tangga keluarga merupakan tempat pertama kali kita menghadapi persoalan ekonomi. Ketidakpastian ekonomi di satu sisi meningkatkan permintaan akan perencanaan keuangan. Penelitian ini akan berfokus pada mencari tahu faktor-faktor mikro keluarga muslim di Indonesia yang dapat mempengaruhi keputusan investasi khususnya saham. Penelitian ini menerapkan metode kuantitatif dengan instrumen data sekunder Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS) gelombang 5. Teknik analisis data yang digunakan adalah analisis regresi probit, teknik analisis yang dilakukan dalam regresi probit meliputi; uji kelayakan model, analisis koefisien determinasi (R2), dan uji hipotesis. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian ditemukan bahwa variabel variabel jumlah keluarga, pinjaman, usia, dan status pernikahan tidak berpengaruh secara signifikan terhadap probabilitas kepemilikan saham. Adapun variabel pendapatan, tingkat pendidikan, jenis kelamin dan financial worship memiliki hubungan positif dan signifikan terhadap probabilitas kepemilikan saham pada keluarga muslim di Indonesia. Diharapkan penelitian ini dapat bermanfaat bagi Otoritas Jasa Keuangan dan Bursa Efek Indonesia sebagai informasi tambahan dan bahan pertimbangan dalam pembenahan kebijakan mengenai peningkatan literasi manajemen keuangan keluarga dan kesejahteraan masyarakat di Indonesia. Kata Kunci: Kepemilikan Saham, Pendapatan, Tingkat Pendidikan, Jumlah Tanggungan Keluarga, Pinjaman, Usia, Jenis Kelamin, Status Pernikahan, Financial Worship. ABSTRACT The family home environment is the first place we face economic problems. Economic uncertainty on the one hand increases the demand for financial planning. This study will focus on finding out the micro factors of Muslim families in Indonesia that can influence investment decisions, especially stocks. This study applies quantitative methods with secondary data instruments Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS) wave 5 The data analysis technique used is probit regression analysis, the analysis techniques carried out in probit regression include; model feasibility test, analysis of the coefficient of determination (R2), and hypothesis testing. Based on the results of the study, it was found that the variables of family size, loan, age, and marital status did not significantly influence the probability of stock ownership. The variables of income, education level, gender and financial worship have a positive and significant relationship to the probability of stock ownership in Muslim families in Indonesia. It is hoped that this research can be useful for the Otoritas Jasa Keuangan and the Bursa Efek Indonesia as additional information and consideration in reforming policies regarding increasing literacy in family financial management and community welfare in Indonesia. 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Das Buch ist der Biographie und dem wissenschaftlichen Nachlass von John Michael Steiner gewidmet – einem tschechisch-amerikanischen Soziologen, geboren 1925 in Prag, verstorben 2014 im kalifornischen Novato. Er hat Auschwitz und andere Konzentrationslager überlebt und ist einer der wenigen Verfolgten, die sich später in der wissenschaftlichen Täterforschung engagierten. Nach dem Krieg musste er wegen der Machtübernahme der KP aus Prag fliehen, zunächst nach Australien, dann in die USA. Er kam 1962 nach Deutschland und konnte seine Forschung auch nach seiner Promotion an der Universität Freiburg i.Br. fortsetzen, unterstützt durch Stipendien der Alexander von Humboldt Foundation und der Fulbright Commission. – Einzigartig ist seine vergleichende Untersuchung (1962 bis 1966) zwischen ehemaligen Angehörigen der Waffen-SS und SS und ehemaligen Angehörigen der Wehrmacht mit dem 1970 publizierten Ergebnis einer weiterbestehenden, relativ stärkeren autoritären Einstellung der ehemaligen Angehörigen der Waffen-SS und SS. Weitaus wichtiger waren ihm Lebensläufe und Sozialverhalten typischer SS-Männer. Aus verschiedenen Gründen kam es nicht zu einer Publikation der für ihn verfassten Lebensläufe. Hier ragen 10 Lebensläufe hervor: Vier Verfasser waren zu lebenslänglicher Haft verurteilt wegen ihrer vielfachen Morde in den Lagern Auschwitz, Buchenwald oder Sobibor, sechs waren Offiziere der Waffen-SS, darunter ein Adjutant Himmlers und ein Adjutant Hitlers. Diese Lebensläufe werden hier erstmals publiziert (dazu zwei transkribierte Interviews). Im Kapitel 1 wird Steiners Biographie geschildert, seine wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten und sein öffentliches Engagement. Dieses Kapitel enthält auch seine Aufsätze über das Fragmentierte Gewissen und über Role margin, d.h. den individuellen, von sozialer und von moralischer Intelligenz abhängigen Ermessenspielraum eines SS-Mannes im Lagerkommando, außerdem seinen Briefwechsel mit Erich Fromm über die Interpretation der Lebensläufen von SS-Angehörigen. Übersetzt wurden Steiners drei eindringliche Erfahrungsberichte: KZ-Arbeitseinsatz Blechhammer, Todesmarsch nach Reichenbach, Im Viehwagen nach Dachau. Im Kapitel 2 Grundlegende Studien zur Autoritären Persönlichkeit: Konzeptionen und Forschungsergebnisse wird ein Bezugsrahmen für die folgenden Interpretationen entwickelt. Dazu gehört eine Übersicht über zwei Meilenstein-Studien zur Autoritäten Persönlichkeit: (1) Erich Fromm und Mitarbeiter (1936, 1980), deren Publikation von Max Horkheimer untersagt wurde, und (2) Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson und Sanford (1950). Der ausführliche Kommentar zur neueren Forschung auf diesem Gebiet bezieht sich einerseits auf die "Autoritäre Persönlichkeit" als multimethodisch und prozessanalytisch zu erfassender Persönlichkeitstypus versus "Autoritarismus" als Einstellung, gewöhnlich nur als Selbstbeurteilung ohne Verhaltensdaten erfasst. – Wichtige Arbeiten der Täterforschung werden dargestellt, u.a. die herausragende Forschung von Henry Dicks (1950, 1972). Weitere Themen sind: das geringe Interesse deutscher Psychologen an der Täterforschung, die sog. neue Täterforschung deutscher Historiker und der gravierende Mangel an Interdisziplinarität. Im Kapitel 3 Täterforschung: Steiners Konzepte und Methoden wird die Fragebogenstudie dargestellt und ausführlich über die zehn Lebensläufe berichtet. Sie werden psychologisch interpretiert, u.a. hinsichtlich Fromms Konzeption der Autoritären Persönlichkeit und Steiners Fragen nach Fragmentierung des Gewissens und Entscheidungsspielraum. Diese Leitkonzepte sind zweifellos als Heuristiken geeignet, doch mangelt es oft an hinreichend detaillierter Lebenslauf-Information, um die situative Auslösung von latenter Gewalttätigkeit und von sadistischen Handlungen adäquat erfassen zu können. Die mit Absicht erst nachträglich recherchierten, sekundären Informationen sind als Korrektiv des Gesamtbildes wichtig, können jedoch eine systematische Exploration der psychosozialen Prozesse nicht ersetzen. Im Kapitel 4 Täterforschung und Erziehungsreform wird Steiners Forderung nach einer fundamentalen Erziehungsreform im Kontext anderer Reformideen geschildert: u.a. Neills' Summerhill, Entnazifizierungsprogramme (Re-education); Aussteiger-Programme für Angehörige extremistischer Gruppen. – "Erziehung nach Ausschwitz" fand jedoch kaum statt. Es mangelt weithin an einem Ethik-Unterricht für Alle und auf allen Schulstufen. Erst während der letzten Jahre gibt es in Deutschland mehr Initiativen zur Reform des Ethik-Unterrichts, beispielsweise durch Projekte der Bertelsmann-Stiftung, durch neue pädagogische Initiativen und Schulbücher mit vielen Anregungen, nicht nur das Wissen über Ethik zu lehren, sondern Kompetenzen wie Perspektivenwechsel und Einfühlung auch praktisch zu üben. Das Kapitel 5 fasst die wichtigsten Perspektiven zusammen und zitiert Steiners Fragen und Thesen (wie sie als Untertitel dieses Buches gewählt wurden: " …wie können Menschen so werden, dass sie so etwas tun können?" – "Je mehr ich verstehe, desto weniger muss ich hassen." – "Nur Erinnerung und Erziehung können neuen Furchtbarkeiten und Genoziden vorbeugen." Der Anhang enthält außer den Kopien der Lebensläufe u.a. Steiner Publikationsliste, seine an der Sonoma State University inzwischen gelöschte Homepage und sein Engagement in den Medien. So war er an der vierteiligen Reportage (SPIEGEL-TV, 2009, und ZDF) Gesichter des Bösen als direkter Zeitzeuge und als wissenschaftlicher Kommentator beteiligt. ; The book is dedicated to the biography and academic bequest of John Michael Steiner – a Czech American sociologist born in Prague in 1925, died in Novato, California, in 2014. He survived Auschwitz and other concentration camps and is one of the few persecuted people who later became involved in scientific research into perpetrators. After the war he had to flee Prague because of the seizure of power by the Communist Party, first to Australia, then to the USA. He came to Germany in 1962 and was able to continue his research after his doctorate at the University of Freiburg i. Br, supported by fellowships from the Alexander von Humboldt-Foundation and as a Senior Fulbright-Professor. His comparative study (1962 to 1966) of former members of the Waffen-SS and SS and former members of the Wehrmacht is unique. The results, indicating a persisting authoritarian attitude, remarkably higher in former members of Waffen-SS and SS, were published in 1970. Far more important to him were the CVs and social behavior of typical SS-men. For various reasons, the CVs were not published. Ten of these CV written for him stand out here: four authors were sentenced to life imprisonment for their multiple murders in the Auschwitz, Buchenwald or Sobibor camps; six were officers of the Waffen-SS, including an adjutant of Himmler and an adjutant of Hitler. These CVs are published here for the first time (plus two transcribed interviews). Chapter 1 describes Steiner's biography, his scientific work, and his public commitment. This chapter also contains his essays on the Fragmentation of Conscience and on Role Margin, i.e., the individual discretion of an SS man's action, dependent on social and moral intelligence, and, Steiner's correspondence with Erich Fromm on the interpretation of the biographies of SS-men. Three reports of Steiner's extreme experience were translated: Slave Laborer at the Blechhammer (Ehrenforst) Synfuel Plant; On a Death March from Blechhammer to Reichenbach; In a Cattle Wagon to Dachau. Chapter 2 Basic Studies on Authoritarian Personality: Concepts and Research Results develop a frame of reference for the following interpretations. This includes an overview of two mile-stone studies on the Authoritarian personality:(1) Erich Fromm and co-workers (1936, 1980, initial publication prohibited by Max Horkheimer), and (2) Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levenson and Sanford (1950). The detailed commentary on recent research in this field refers on the one hand to the "authoritarian personality" as a personality type suggesting a multimethod assessment of motivation and action, versus "authoritarianism" as a social attitude, usually a self-assessment, i.e., a questionnaire without behavioral data. Important work of perpetrator research is presented, e.g., the outstanding research by Henry Dicks (1950, 1972). Other topics are: the low interest of German psychologists in perpetrator research, the so-called new perpetrator research by German historians, and the serious lack of interdisciplinarity. In Chapter 3 Perpetrator Research: Steiner's Concepts and Methods, the questionnaire study is presented, and the ten CVs are reported in detail. The psychological interpretation is primarily based on Fromm's conception of the authoritarian personality and Steiner's questions about fragmentation of conscience and role margin. These guiding concepts are undoubtedly suitable as heuristics, but there is often a lack of sufficiently detailed CV information to adequately capture the situational triggering of latent violence and sadistic actions. Secondary information, obtained after interpretation, is essential as a corrective to the overall picture, but cannot replace a systematic exploration of psychosocial processes. In Chapter 4 Perpetrator Research and Educational Reform, Steiner's demand for a fundamental education reform is discussed in the context of, among others, Neill's Summerhill, De-nazification programs (re-education); Drop-out programs for members of extremist groups. However, "Education after Auschwitz" hardly ever took place. There is a widespread lack of ethics teaching for all, and at all school levels in Germany. Only in recent years have there been more initiatives in Germany to renewing ethics teaching, for example, projects by the Bertelsmann Foundation, new pedagogical initiatives, and textbooks with many suggestions not only to teach knowledge about ethics, but also to practice skills, such as a change of perspective, and empathy. Chapter 5 summarizes the essential perspectives, and quotes Steiner's questions and principles (chosen as subtitles of the present book): "How can people become such that they can do something like this?"; "The more I understand, the less I have to hate"; "Only memory and education can prevent new dreadfulness and genocide". Appendix: In addition to copies of the original CVs, it contains Steiner's list of publications; his homepage, which has since been deleted at Sonoma State University; and his media appearances., e.g., in the four-part Reportage Faces of Evil (SPIEGEL-TV 2009, and ZDF) as a direct contemporary witness, and as an expert in perpetrator research.

Early childhood development (PAUD) is a fundamental investment that is included in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Previous research has shown that ECD investment in Indonesia, and its financial governance remains a challenging issue. Through a qualitative approach to a case study method design, this study aims to examine the state of PAUD financial management in Panggungharjo Village, Yogyakarta. This study uses in-depth interviews and desk research as data collection techniques. The instrument was developed from the SABER-ECD World Bank Assessment and ECD Financial Profiling Tools. The results showed that PAUD financial management in established villages had innovative financing, budget management and institutional development resulted in a blueprint for managing PAUD financing in other villages in Indonesia. 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Das Buch ist der Biographie und dem wissenschaftlichen Nachlass von John Michael Steiner gewidmet – einem tschechisch-amerikanischen Soziologen, geboren 1925 in Prag, verstorben 2014 im kalifornischen Novato. Er hat Auschwitz und andere Konzentrationslager überlebt und ist einer der wenigen Verfolgten, die sich später in der wissenschaftlichen Täterforschung engagierten. Nach dem Krieg musste er wegen der Machtübernahme der KP aus Prag fliehen, zunächst nach Australien, dann in die USA. Er kam 1962 nach Deutschland und konnte seine Forschung auch nach seiner Promotion an der Universität Freiburg i.Br. fortsetzen, unterstützt durch Stipendien der Alexander von Humboldt Foundation und der Fulbright Commission. – Einzigartig ist seine vergleichende Untersuchung (1962 bis 1966) zwischen ehemaligen Angehörigen der Waffen-SS und SS und ehemaligen Angehörigen der Wehrmacht mit dem 1970 publizierten Ergebnis einer weiterbestehenden, relativ stärkeren autoritären Einstellung der ehemaligen Angehörigen der Waffen-SS und SS. Weitaus wichtiger waren ihm Lebensläufe und Sozialverhalten typischer SS-Männer. Aus verschiedenen Gründen kam es nicht zu einer Publikation der für ihn verfassten Lebensläufe. Hier ragen 10 Lebensläufe hervor: Vier Verfasser waren zu lebenslänglicher Haft verurteilt wegen ihrer vielfachen Morde in den Lagern Auschwitz, Buchenwald oder Sobibor, sechs waren Offiziere der Waffen-SS, darunter ein Adjutant Himmlers und ein Adjutant Hitlers. Diese Lebensläufe werden hier erstmals publiziert (dazu zwei transkribierte Interviews). Im Kapitel 1 wird Steiners Biographie geschildert, seine wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten und sein öffentliches Engagement. Dieses Kapitel enthält auch seine Aufsätze über das Fragmentierte Gewissen und über Role margin, d.h. den individuellen, von sozialer und von moralischer Intelligenz abhängigen Ermessenspielraum eines SS-Mannes im Lagerkommando, außerdem seinen Briefwechsel mit Erich Fromm über die Interpretation der Lebensläufen von SS-Angehörigen. Übersetzt wurden Steiners drei eindringliche Erfahrungsberichte: KZ-Arbeitseinsatz Blechhammer, Todesmarsch nach Reichenbach, Im Viehwagen nach Dachau. Im Kapitel 2 Grundlegende Studien zur Autoritären Persönlichkeit: Konzeptionen und Forschungsergebnisse wird ein Bezugsrahmen für die folgenden Interpretationen entwickelt. Dazu gehört eine Übersicht über zwei Meilenstein-Studien zur Autoritäten Persönlichkeit: (1) Erich Fromm und Mitarbeiter (1936, 1980), deren Publikation von Max Horkheimer untersagt wurde, und (2) Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson und Sanford (1950). Der ausführliche Kommentar zur neueren Forschung auf diesem Gebiet bezieht sich einerseits auf die "Autoritäre Persönlichkeit" als multimethodisch und prozessanalytisch zu erfassender Persönlichkeitstypus versus "Autoritarismus" als Einstellung, gewöhnlich nur als Selbstbeurteilung ohne Verhaltensdaten erfasst. – Wichtige Arbeiten der Täterforschung werden dargestellt, u.a. die herausragende Forschung von Henry Dicks (1950, 1972). Weitere Themen sind: das geringe Interesse deutscher Psychologen an der Täterforschung, die sog. neue Täterforschung deutscher Historiker und der gravierende Mangel an Interdisziplinarität. Im Kapitel 3 Täterforschung: Steiners Konzepte und Methoden wird die Fragebogenstudie dargestellt und ausführlich über die zehn Lebensläufe berichtet. Sie werden psychologisch interpretiert, u.a. hinsichtlich Fromms Konzeption der Autoritären Persönlichkeit und Steiners Fragen nach Fragmentierung des Gewissens und Entscheidungsspielraum. Diese Leitkonzepte sind zweifellos als Heuristiken geeignet, doch mangelt es oft an hinreichend detaillierter Lebenslauf-Information, um die situative Auslösung von latenter Gewalttätigkeit und von sadistischen Handlungen adäquat erfassen zu können. Die mit Absicht erst nachträglich recherchierten, sekundären Informationen sind als Korrektiv des Gesamtbildes wichtig, können jedoch eine systematische Exploration der psychosozialen Prozesse nicht ersetzen. Im Kapitel 4 Täterforschung und Erziehungsreform wird Steiners Forderung nach einer fundamentalen Erziehungsreform im Kontext anderer Reformideen geschildert: u.a. Neills' Summerhill, Entnazifizierungsprogramme (Re-education); Aussteiger-Programme für Angehörige extremistischer Gruppen. – "Erziehung nach Ausschwitz" fand jedoch kaum statt. Es mangelt weithin an einem Ethik-Unterricht für Alle und auf allen Schulstufen. Erst während der letzten Jahre gibt es in Deutschland mehr Initiativen zur Reform des Ethik-Unterrichts, beispielsweise durch Projekte der Bertelsmann-Stiftung, durch neue pädagogische Initiativen und Schulbücher mit vielen Anregungen, nicht nur das Wissen über Ethik zu lehren, sondern Kompetenzen wie Perspektivenwechsel und Einfühlung auch praktisch zu üben. Das Kapitel 5 fasst die wichtigsten Perspektiven zusammen und zitiert Steiners Fragen und Thesen (wie sie als Untertitel dieses Buches gewählt wurden: " …wie können Menschen so werden, dass sie so etwas tun können?" – "Je mehr ich verstehe, desto weniger muss ich hassen." – "Nur Erinnerung und Erziehung können neuen Furchtbarkeiten und Genoziden vorbeugen." Der Anhang enthält außer den Kopien der Lebensläufe u.a. Steiner Publikationsliste, seine an der Sonoma State University inzwischen gelöschte Homepage und sein Engagement in den Medien. So war er an der vierteiligen Reportage (SPIEGEL-TV, 2009, und ZDF) Gesichter des Bösen als direkter Zeitzeuge und als wissenschaftlicher Kommentator beteiligt. ; The book is dedicated to the biography and academic bequest of John Michael Steiner – a Czech American sociologist born in Prague in 1925, died in Novato, California, in 2014. He survived Auschwitz and other concentration camps and is one of the few persecuted people who later became involved in scientific research into perpetrators. After the war he had to flee Prague because of the seizure of power by the Communist Party, first to Australia, then to the USA. He came to Germany in 1962 and was able to continue his research after his doctorate at the University of Freiburg i. Br, supported by fellowships from the Alexander von Humboldt-Foundation and as a Senior Fulbright-Professor. His comparative study (1962 to 1966) of former members of the Waffen-SS and SS and former members of the Wehrmacht is unique. The results, indicating a persisting authoritarian attitude, remarkably higher in former members of Waffen-SS and SS, were published in 1970. Far more important to him were the CVs and social behavior of typical SS-men. For various reasons, the CVs were not published. Ten of these CV written for him stand out here: four authors were sentenced to life imprisonment for their multiple murders in the Auschwitz, Buchenwald or Sobibor camps; six were officers of the Waffen-SS, including an adjutant of Himmler and an adjutant of Hitler. These CVs are published here for the first time (plus two transcribed interviews). Chapter 1 describes Steiner's biography, his scientific work, and his public commitment. This chapter also contains his essays on the Fragmentation of Conscience and on Role Margin, i.e., the individual discretion of an SS man's action, dependent on social and moral intelligence, and, Steiner's correspondence with Erich Fromm on the interpretation of the biographies of SS-men. Three reports of Steiner's extreme experience were translated: Slave Laborer at the Blechhammer (Ehrenforst) Synfuel Plant; On a Death March from Blechhammer to Reichenbach; In a Cattle Wagon to Dachau. Chapter 2 Basic Studies on Authoritarian Personality: Concepts and Research Results develop a frame of reference for the following interpretations. This includes an overview of two mile-stone studies on the Authoritarian personality:(1) Erich Fromm and co-workers (1936, 1980, initial publication prohibited by Max Horkheimer), and (2) Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levenson and Sanford (1950). The detailed commentary on recent research in this field refers on the one hand to the "authoritarian personality" as a personality type suggesting a multimethod assessment of motivation and action, versus "authoritarianism" as a social attitude, usually a self-assessment, i.e., a questionnaire without behavioral data. Important work of perpetrator research is presented, e.g., the outstanding research by Henry Dicks (1950, 1972). Other topics are: the low interest of German psychologists in perpetrator research, the so-called new perpetrator research by German historians, and the serious lack of interdisciplinarity. In Chapter 3 Perpetrator Research: Steiner's Concepts and Methods, the questionnaire study is presented, and the ten CVs are reported in detail. The psychological interpretation is primarily based on Fromm's conception of the authoritarian personality and Steiner's questions about fragmentation of conscience and role margin. These guiding concepts are undoubtedly suitable as heuristics, but there is often a lack of sufficiently detailed CV information to adequately capture the situational triggering of latent violence and sadistic actions. Secondary information, obtained after interpretation, is essential as a corrective to the overall picture, but cannot replace a systematic exploration of psychosocial processes. In Chapter 4 Perpetrator Research and Educational Reform, Steiner's demand for a fundamental education reform is discussed in the context of, among others, Neill's Summerhill, De-nazification programs (re-education); Drop-out programs for members of extremist groups. However, "Education after Auschwitz" hardly ever took place. There is a widespread lack of ethics teaching for all, and at all school levels in Germany. Only in recent years have there been more initiatives in Germany to renewing ethics teaching, for example, projects by the Bertelsmann Foundation, new pedagogical initiatives, and textbooks with many suggestions not only to teach knowledge about ethics, but also to practice skills, such as a change of perspective, and empathy. Chapter 5 summarizes the essential perspectives, and quotes Steiner's questions and principles (chosen as subtitles of the present book): "How can people become such that they can do something like this?"; "The more I understand, the less I have to hate"; "Only memory and education can prevent new dreadfulness and genocide". Appendix: In addition to copies of the original CVs, it contains Steiner's list of publications; his homepage, which has since been deleted at Sonoma State University; and his media appearances., e.g., in the four-part Reportage Faces of Evil (SPIEGEL-TV 2009, and ZDF) as a direct contemporary witness, and as an expert in perpetrator research. ; unknown ; unknown

ABSTRAKLingkungan hidup merupakan tempat tinggal semua makhluk hidup yang harus dijaga dan dilestarikan. Kurangnya kepedulian masyarakat dalam melestarikan alam dapat menyebabkan pencemaran lingkungan dan banyaknya sampah berserakan. Hadirnya bank sampah menjadi salah satu upaya guna mewujudkan lingkungan yang bersih, asri dan sehat. Dalam sistem operasionalnya, bank sampah menerapkan nilai-nilai pada maqashid syariah yang kemudian diwujudkan melalui green economy pada bank sampah. Tujuan dari studi ini adalah untuk menganalisa nilai maqashid syariah sekaligus green economy yang terkandung pada Bank Sampah Induk Surabaya. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode kualitatif deskriptif dengan strategi studi kasus guna memberikan gambaran detail terkait sistem operasional pada Bank Sampah Induk Surabaya. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan adanya penerapan nilai maqashid syariah pada sistem operasional Bank Sampah Induk Surabaya melalui ketetapan, pengadaan kegiatan, dan peraturan yang ditetapkan serta mewujudkan 10 prinsip pada konsep green economy yang sekaligus mendukung tiga program pada Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Bersesuaian dengan ulasan sebelumnya mulai dari tujuan, metode penelitian dan hasil maka saran yang relevan dengan studi adalah perlu perhatian khusus bagi pengelolaan Bank Sampah Induk Surabaya agar penerapan nilai maqashid syariahnya lebih dioptimalkan sehingga mampu memberikan manfaat lebih banyak bagi masyarakat selain aspek ekonomi.Kata Kunci: Bank Sampah, Maqashid Syariah, Green Economy, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). ABSTRACTThe living environment is a home for all living things that should be protected and preserved. Lack of environmental awareness can cause environmental pollution and waste problems. The presence of waste banks becomes an attempt to create a clean, beautiful, and healthy environment. In its operational system, waste banks apply the values of maqashid sharia that is called green economy. The purpose of this study was to analyze the values of maqashid sharia and green economy which were applied by the Central Waste Bank of Surabaya. This study used a descriptive qualitative method with a case study strategy to provide a detailed description of the operating system at the Central Waste Bank of Surabaya. The results showed that the application of maqashid sharia values in the Central Waste Bank of Surabaya was applied through stipulations, procurement activities, and established regulations as well as realizing 10 principles in the green economy program concepts which also supported three programs in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). According to the findings of this study, the relevant suggestion is that the management of the Central Waste Bank of Surabaya requires special attention so that the application of maqashid sharia values can be optimal. The optimization of maqashid sharia values will benefit the community, not limited to the economic aspect.Keywords: Waste Bank, Maqashid Sharia, Green Economy, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).REFERENCESAlfarisyi, A. T., & Fauzi, R. M. Q. (2020). Peran pemberdayaan bank sampah dalam Islam (Studi kasus pada bank sampah induk Surabaya). Jurnal Ekonomi Syariah Teori dan Terapan, 6(3), 541. https://doi.org/10.20473/vol6iss20193pp541-554Antasari, D. W. (2020). Implementasi green economy terhadap pembangunan berkelanjutan di kota Kediri. Jurnal Ekonomi Pembangunan STIE Muhammadiyah Palopo, 5(2), 80–88. https://doi.org/10.35906/jep01.v5i2.402Arifah, S. R., & Zaki, I. (2020). The contribution of mukmin mandiri pesantren in the achievement of sustainable development goals (SDGs) through poverty alleviation. Jurnal Ekonomi Syariah Teori dan Terapan, 7(8), 1501. https://doi.org/10.20473/vol7iss20208pp1501-1513Asteria, D., & Heruman, H. (2016). Bank sampah sebagai alternatif strategi pengelolaan sampah berbasis masyarakat di Tasikmalaya. Jurnal Manusia dan Lingkungan, 23(1), 136.Dewi, L., Hanik, U., Awwaliah, H., & Yudha, A. T. R. C. (2021). Determinan harga dan potensi sampah sebagai sumber modal ekonomi di bank sampah syariah UINSA Surabaya. Nomicpedia, 1(1), 14–26.Enggardini, R. V., & Fauzy, M. Q. (2017). Kesejahteraan karyawan perspektif maqashid syariah pada pusat penelitian kopi dan kakao. Jurnal Ekonomi Syariah Teori dan Terapan, 4(8), 599–612.Haryanti, S., Gravitiani, E., & Wijaya, M. (2020). Studi penerapan bank sampah dalam upaya pengelolaan lingkungan hidup di kota Yogyakarta. 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Service quality and corporate image to the customer loyalty of BPRS Baktimakmur Indah Sepanjang Sidoarjo. Al-Mashrafiyah: Jurnal Ekonomi, Keuangan Dan Perbankan Syariah, 5(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.24252/al-mashrafiyah.v5i1.20022Novita, A. & Prasetyo, A. (2019). Implementasi komponen maqashid syariah terhadap kesejahteraan pada karyawan yayasan Nurul Hayat Surabaya. Jurnal Ekonomi Syariah Teori dan Terapan, 6(3), 428–445.Nugrahani, F. (2014). Metode penelitian kualitatif. Solo: Cakra Books.Prastyo, D., Purnomo, A. B., & Rahayaan, T. I. (2017). Pelaksanaan program bank sampah dalam sistem pengelolahan sampah di desa Jogodalu Kecamatan Benjeng Kabupaten Gresik. Penamas Adi Buana, 01(1), 7–12.Restuningdiah, N., Nagari, P. M., Jati, F. D., & Azzardina, A. (2021). Literasi bank sampah dan asuransi sampah sebagai upaya peningkatan kesejahteraan masyarakat. Jurnal Inovasi Hasil Pengabdian Masyarakat, 4(1), 144–152. https://doi.org/10.33474/jipemas.v4i1.9140Sahroni, O., & Karim, A. A. (2015). Maqashid bisnis & keuangan Islam: Sintesis fikih dan ekonomi. Jakarta: PT. Raja Grafindo Persada.Setiawan, E., & Fitria, S. E. (2016). Analysis of ecopreneur motivation to achieve green economy in the region district of Bandung (Study case bank sampah bersinar). E-Proceeding of Management, 3(3), 2828–2833.Silviana, U. A., & Kaukab, M. E. (2021). Peran dan fungsi bank sampah dalam peningkatan perekonomian masyarakat di desa Jembangan Kabupaten Banjarnegara. Journal of Community Service and Empowerment, 2(1), 25–37.Soediro, A., & Meutia, I. (2018). Maqasid sharia as a performance framework for Islamic financial institutions. Jurnal Akuntansi Multiparadigma, 9(1), 70–86.Sugiyono. (2012). Metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif, dan kombinasi; mixed methods. Bandung: CV. Alfabeta.Syarifudin, Nurlailah, & Yudha, A. T. R. C. (2020). The allocation of tabarru' fund underwriting surplus of iplan sharia product in PT. Asuransi Jiwa Generali Indonesia. 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My dissertation embraces four empirical papers addressing socio-economic issues relevant to policy-makers and society as a whole. These papers cover important aspects of human life including health at birth, life satisfaction, unemployment periods and retirement decisions, and are intended to provide a contribution to the respective research areas. The analyses are carried out applying advanced econometric methods and are based on data sets consisting of survey data as well as administrative records. The joint paper with Alessandro Palma and Daniela Vuri "Prenatal Air Pollution Exposure and Neonatal Health" in Chapter 2 investigates the causal impact of prenatal exposure to air pollution on neonatal health in Italy in the 2000s combining detailed information on mother's residential location from birth certificates with PM10 concentrations from air pollution monitors. Variation in local weekly rainfall is exploited as an instrumental variable for non-random air pollution exposure. Using quasi-experimental variation in rainfall shocks allows to identify the effect of PM10, ruling out potential bias due to confounder pollutants. The paper estimates the effect of exposure for both the entire pregnancy period and separately for each trimester to test whether the neonatal health effects are driven by pollution exposure during a particular gestation period. This information enhances our understanding of the mechanisms at work and help prevent pregnant mothers from most dangerous exposure periods. Additionally, the effects of prenatal exposure to PM10 are estimated by maternal labor market status and maternal education level to understand how the pollution burden is shared across different population groups. This decomposition allows to identify possible mechanisms through which environmental inequality reinforces the negative impact of early-life exposure to air pollution. This study finds that average PM10 and days with PM10 level above the hazard limit reduce birth weight, gestational age, and measures of overall newborn health. Effects are largest for third trimester exposure and for low-income and less educated mothers. These findings imply that further policy efforts are needed to fully protect fetuses from the adverse effects of air pollution and to mitigate the environmental inequality of health at birth. The joint paper with Christian Pfeifer "Life Satisfaction in Germany After Reunification: Additional Insights on the Pattern of Convergence" in Chapter 3 updates previous findings on the total East-West gap in overall life satisfaction and its trend by using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel for the years 1992 to 2013. Additionally, the effects are separately analyzed for men and women as well as for four birth cohorts. The results indicate that reported life satisfaction is, on average, significantly lower in East than in West German federal states and that part of the raw East-West gap is due to differences in household income and unemployment status. The conditional East-West gap decreased in the first years after the German reunification and remained quite stable and sizable since the mid-nineties. The results further indicate that gender differences are small. Finally, the East-West gap is significantly smaller and shows a trend towards convergence for younger birth cohorts. The joint paper with Christian Pfeifer "Unemployment Benefits Duration and Labor Market Outcomes: Evidence from a Natural Experiment in Germany" in Chapter 4 explores the effects 2 of a major reform of unemployment benefits in Germany on the labor market outcomes of individuals with some health impairment. The reform induced a substantial reduction in the potential duration of regular unemployment benefits for older workers. This work analyzes the reform in a wider framework of institutional interactions, which allows to distinguish between its intended and unintended effects. The results based on routine data collected by the German Statutory Pension Insurance and a Difference-in-Differences design provide causal evidence for a significant decrease in the number of days in unemployment benefits and increase in the number of days in employment. However, they also suggest a significant increase in the number of days in unemployment assistance, granted upon exhaustion of unemployment benefits. Transitions to unemployment assistance represent an unintended effect, limiting the success of a policy change that aims to increase labor supply via reductions in the generosity of the unemployment insurance system. The single-authored paper "How Older Workers Respond to Raised Early Retirement Age: Evidence from a Kink Design in Germany" in Chapter 5 explores how an increase in the early retirement age affects labor force participation of older workers. The analysis is based on a social security reform in Germany, which raised the early retirement age over several birth cohorts to boost employment of older people and ultimately alleviate the burden on the public pension system. Detailed administrative data from the Federal Employment Agency allow to distinguish between employment and unemployment as well as disability pensions and retirement benefits claims. Using a Regression Kink design in a quasi-experimental framework, I show that the raised early retirement age had positive employment effects and negative effects on retirement benefits claims. The reform did not affect unemployment benefits or disability pensions claims. My results also show that some population groups are more sensitive to a reduction in retirement options and more likely to seek benefits from other government programs. In this respect, I find that workers in manufacturing sector respond to the raised early retirement age by claiming benefits from the disability insurance program designed to compensate for reduced earnings capacity due to severe health problems. The treatment heterogeneity analysis further suggests that high-wage workers are more likely to delay exits from employment, which is in line with incentives but might also indicate an increased inequality within the affected birth cohorts induced by the reform. Finally, women seem to rely on alternative sources of income such as retirement benefits for women, or spouse's or partner's income not observed in the data. All things considered, workers did not adjust to the increased early retirement age by substituting early retirement with other government programs but rather responded to the reform in line with the policy intent. At the same time, the findings point to heterogeneous behavioral responses across different population groups. This implies that raising the early retirement age is an effective policy tool to increase employment only among older people who have the real choice to delay employment exits. Therefore, reforms that raise statutory ages should ensure social support for workers only marginally attached to the labor market or not able to work longer due to potential health problems or other circumstances. ; Meine kumulative Dissertationsschrift umfasst neben einer zusammenfassenden Einleitung vier Aufsätze, von denen ich einen in Alleinautorenschaft und drei in Koautorenschaft in unterschiedlichen Autorenteams verfasst habe. Alle vier Aufsätze sind empirischer Natur und untersuchen auf Grundlage mikroökonometrischer Methoden Fragestellungen der angewandten Arbeitsmarkt- und Bevölkerungsökonomik. lm ersten Aufsatz untersuche ich gemeinsam mit Alessandro Palma und Daniela Vuri den Einfluss von Feinstaubbelastung in utero auf den Gesundheitszustand Neugeborener auf Basis italienischer Daten. Hierbei stellt ein Hauptproblem die Endogenität der Feinstaubbelastung infolge der Wohnortselektion seitens der Mütter und der Konfudierung mit weiteren Belastungsfaktoren dar, die verzerrte Schätzungen wahrscheinlich macht. Um diese Probleme zu adressieren, nutzte ich eine überzeugende Instrumentationsstrategie, welche ausschließlich solche Variation in der Feinstaubbelastung nutzt, die durch plausibel exogene Variation in der Niederschlagsmenge hervorgerufen wird. Es zeigen sich hierbei statistisch signifikant negative Einflüsse auf eine Reihe von Gesundheitsmaßen, die sich vorrangig auf die Feinstaubbelastung im dritten Trimester der Schwangerschaft zurückführen lassen und die ausgeprägter für Mütter mit schwächerem sozioökonomischen Status ausfallen. Der zweite gemeinsam mit Christian Pfeifer verfasste Aufsatz untersucht Unterschiede in der Lebenszufriedenheit zwischen Westdeutschen und Ostdeutschen auf Basis von Daten des Sozio-oekonomischen Panels. Während sich etwa ein Drittel des mittleren Zufriedenheitsdifferentials auf Unterschiede in Einkommen, Erwerbsstatus und Bildung beziehen lassen, kann der Rest nicht auf beobachtete Merkmale zurückgeführt werden. Interessanterweise zeigt sich im Zeitablauf eine partielle Konvergenz zwischen Ost- und Westdeutschen mit ähnlichen Entwicklungen für Frauen wie für Männer. Eine Kohortenanalyse offenbart, dass das Differential für jüngere Kohorten, die nach der Wiedervereinigung sozialisiert wurden, seine ökonomische wie statistische Signifikanz verliert und sich überdies für diese eine stärkere Konvergenz beobachten lässt. Die Kohortenanalyse legt zudem nahe, dass die (partielle) Konvergenz der Lebenszufriedenheit plausiblerweise nicht auf eine Konvergenz in unbeobachteten Merkmalen der Individuen zurückgeführt werden kann. Der dritte ebenfalls mit Christian Pfeifer verfasste Aufsatz widmet sich der Evaluation der im Rahmen der Hartz-Reformen erfolgten Verkürzung der maximalen Bezugsdauer von Arbeitslosengeld l für ältere Arbeitnehmer. Genutzt werden hierzu administrative Daten der deutschen Rentenversicherung und ein Differenz-von-Differenzen-Ansatz, in dem jüngere Arbeitnehmer als Kontrollgruppe fungieren. Es zeigt sich ein ökonomisch und statistisch signifikant positiver (negativer) Effekt auf die Tage in sozialversicherungspflichtiger Beschäftigung (Tage von Arbeitslosengeld l-Bezug) und - als nicht intendierter Nebeneffekt - auf die Tage von Arbeitslosengeld ll-Bezug mit nur geringer Heterogenität nach Geschlecht sowie West- und Ostdeutschland. 2 lm vierten Aufsatz untersuche ich in Alleinautorenschaft, welchen Einfluss die Erhöhung des frühestmöglichen Renteneintrittsalters bei Frühverrentung im Jahr 2004 auf die Beschäftigungs- und Verrentungswahrscheinlichkeit nimmt. Unter Nutzung von Prozessdaten der deutschen Arbeitslosen- und Rentenversicherung nutze ich hierzu mit einem sog. Regression-Kink-Design eine innovative, bislang nur selten verwandte Methode. Kernergebnis ist, dass es zu einer ökonomisch und statistisch signifikanten Erhöhung der Beschäftigungswahrscheinlichkeit und Reduktion der Verrentungswahrscheinlichkeit kommt und sich für einige untersuchte Subgruppen sehr unterschiedliche Ergebnisse zeigen.

Covid-19 has changed the learning process from class attendance to distance learning using the Internet.Early childhood education is threatened to enter into the lost generation, due to distance learning, which causes confusion for teachers and parents to be able to provide the best stimulation for them.Therefore, the Indonesian government made a new policy on online learning. The objectives of this research are to find how effective at online learning policy formulation, howproductiveit is in policy implementation, and what are the obstacles oftheimplementation at Early-Childhood Education (ECE). This qualitative research uses a mixed method approach with an iterative analysis design, conducted in Central Java Province in 35 districts / cities with 1,899 respondents. Data collection techniques with open-closed questionnaires, study from 15 documentation, and in-depth interviews. Data analysis uses quantitative-qualitative software Nvivo12+, with Miles and Huberman models. The results showedthe policy formulation of online learning at ECE has been effective.However, the implementation of online learning policy at ECE still takes a lot of effort to become more powerful in preventing a decline in learning.There are five obstacles in in applying this in the field,namely the ability of teachers, the ability of parents, economic capability, facility constraints, and pedagogical constraints. Keywords: Online Learning Policy; Children Engagement; Learning Management System References Allen, I. E., Seaman, J. (2013). Changing course: Ten years of tracking online education in the United States. ERIC, ISBN 0984028838. Asilestari, P. (2016). Komputer Interaktif sebagai Media Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris pada Anak Usia Dini. Jurnal Obsesi: Jurnal Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini, 2, n. 1, p. 55-62. Association, I. I. S. P. (2018). Penetrasi & Profil Perialku Pengguna Internet Indonesia. Coates, H. (2006). 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ABSTRAKTujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menguji pengaruh pengalaman kerjadan independensi terhadap kualitas audit sektor publik dengan reward sebagai pemoderasi. Data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah data primer.Metode pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan memberikan pertanyaan tertulis berupa kuesioner kepada responden.Populasi penelitian ini adalah seluruh auditor yang bekerja pada Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan Republik Indonesia (BPK-RI) Perwakilan Provinsi Kalimantan Barat.Pemilihan sampel penelitian ini menggunakan teknik purposive sampling dan sampel yang diperoleh ada sebanyak 33 auditor.Teknik analisis datadilakukan dengan metode Structural Equation Modelling(SEM) dengan pendekatan Partial Least Squares(PLS) menggunakan perangkat lunak WarpPLS 6.0. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pengalaman kerjadan independensi berpengaruh positif signifikan terhadap kualitas audit sektor publik. Reward tidak dapat memoderasi pengaruh pengalaman kerjaterhadap kualitas audit sektor publik tetapi,reward dapat memoderasi pengaruh independensi terhadap kualitas audit sektor publik.Kata Kunci : pengalaman kerja, independensi, reward, kualitas audit sektor publikDAFTAR PUSTAKAAmanita Novi Yushita dan Rahmawati Hanung Triatmoko 2013. Pengaruh Mekanisme Corporate Governance, Kualitas Auditor, dan Likuiditas Terhadap Kualitas Laba. Jurnal Economia. 9(2): h: 141-155.Agung, Rai I Gusti. 2008. Audit Kinerja Pada Publik. Jakarta: Salemba Empat.Ari Kristin Prasetyoningrum, 2010. Analisis Pengaruh Independensi dan Profesionalisme Dewan Pengawas Syariah terhadap Kinerja Bank Perkreditan Rakyat Syariah di Jawa Tengah. Akuntansi Muhamadiyah. 12(1): h: 27-36. Badjuri, Achmat. 2011. Faktor-Faktor yang Berpengaruh Terhadap Kualitas Audit Auditor Independen pada Kantor Akuntan Publik (KAP) di Jawa Tengah. Dinamika Keuangan dan Perbankan. 3(2): h: 183-197.Badan Pusat Statistik. (2018). Ekonomi Indonesia Triwulan 1 2018. Diakses dari https://www.bps.go.id/pressrelease/2018/05/07/1520/ekonomi-indonesia-triwulan-1-2018-tumbuh-5-06-persen.html.Dewi, N,P,E,Y ., & Dwirandra, A,A,N,B. (2018). Kompetensi dan Moral Reasoning Memoderasi Pengaruh Independensi Pada Kualitas Audit di Kantor Akuntan Publik Provinsi Bali. Jurnal Akuntansi Universitas Udayana, 23 (1). Bali: Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Udayana (UNUD).DeAngelo, L.E. 1981. Auditor Size and Audit Quality. Journal of Accounting & Economics.Elisha Muliani Singgih dan Icuk Rangga Bawono, 2010. Pengaruh Independensi, Pengalaman, Due Professional Care dan Akuntabilitas terhadap kualitas audit (Studi pada Auditor di KAP "Big Four" di Indonesia). Journal of symPosium nasional Akuntansi. 8(1): 1-24.Foster, Bill. 2001. Pembinaan Untuk Peningkatan Kinerja Karyawan. Jakarta: PPM Fietoria, & Manalu, E,S. (2016). Pengaruh Profesionalisme, Independensi, Kompetensi, Dan Pengalaman Kerja Terhadap Kualitas Audit Di Kantor Akuntan Publik Bandung. Journal of Accounting and Business Studies, 1(1). Bandung: Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Ekonomi Harapan Bangsa.Hari, B,L , Rasuli, M ., & Darlis, E. (2015). Pengaruh Kompetensi, Independensi, Pengalaman Kerja, Kompleksitas Tugas Terhadap Kualitas Audit Aparat Inspektorat Dalam Pengawasan Keuangan Daerah dan Reward Sebagai Variabel Moderating. Jurnal Ilmu-ilmu Sosial(SOROT), 10(1). Riau: Universitas Riau.Harhinto, T. 2004. Pengaruh Keahlian dan Independensi terhadap Kualitas Audit, Studi Empiris pada KAP di Jawa Timur. Tesis tidak dipublikasikan. Universitas Diponegoro Semarang.Hariyanto, I. (2018). Hingga April 10 Kepala Daerah Jadi Tersangka Korupsi di 2018. Diakses dari https://news.detik.com/berita/d-3971124/hingga-april-10-kepala-daerah-jadi-tersangka-korupsi-di-2018?ga=2.124283658.1041825181.1541022433-2028488293.1541922429Hadari Nawawi, (2003) Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia Untuk Bisnis Yang Kompetitif, Gadjah Mada University Press, Yogyakarta.Heriansyah, M,I , Taufik, T ., & Ratnawati, V. (2016). Pengaruh Reward sebagai Variabel Moderasi dengan Kompetensi, Independensi, Pengalaman Kerja, dan Keahlian Profesional terhadap Kualitas Audit. Jurnal Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial (SOROT), 10 (1). Riau: Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Riau.Ikatan Auditor Indonesia. 2001. Standar Profesional Auditor Publik. Jakarta: Salemba Empat.Kenneth D'Silva and Jeffrey Ridley, 2007. Auditing's International Contribution To Governance. Journal Business Governance and Ethics. 3 (2): h: 113126.Libby dan D. M. Fredrick. (1990). Experience and the ability to explain audit findings. 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Influence of Internal Auditor Competence and Independence on The Quality of Financial Reporting By Municipa/ Provincial Government. International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management. 2(10): h: 114.Peraturan Menteri Negara Pendayagunaan Aparatur Negara Nomor PER/220/M.PAN/7/2008 Tentang Jabatan Fungsional Auditor Dan Angka Kreditnya.Peraturan Bersama Kepala Badan Pengawas Keuangan Dan Pembangunan Dan Kepala Badan Kepegawaian Negara Nomor PER-131-/K/JF/2008 dan Nomor 24 Tahun 2008 Tentang Petunjuk Pelaksanaan Jabatan Fungsional Auditor dan Angka Kreditnya.Peraturan Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan Republik Indonesia Nomor 1 Tahun 2017 Tentang Standar Pemeriksaan Keuangan Negara.Putra, N. A. E. 2012. Pengaruh Kompetensi, Tekanan Waktu, Pengalaman Kerja, Etika, dan Independensi Auditor terhadap Kualitas Audit. Skripsi. Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta.Belarminus, Robertus. (2017). Kronologi kasus dugaan suap pejabat kemendes pdtt dan auditor bpk(kasus dugaan suap yang diterima auditor BPK). Diakses dari https://nasional kompas com/read/2017/05/28/02000071/kronologi kasus dugaan suap pejabat kemendes pdtt dan auditor BPK.Safitri, C,C , Sularso, H ., & Restianto, Y,E. (2016). Analisis Faktor-Faktor Yang Mempengaruhi Kualitas Audit Dengan Reward Sebagai Variabel Pemoderasi (Studi Pada Aparat Pengawas Internal Pemerintah Di Inspektorat Daerah Kabupaten Se Eks Karesidenan Banyumas). Jurnal Ekonomi Bisnis dan Akuntansi (JEBA), 11 (5). Banyumas: Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Jenderal Soedirman.Sania, R. (2012). Pengaruh Motivasi dan Reward Terhadap Kepuasan Kerja Karyawan Bagian Office (Non Medis) Rumah Sakit Bogor Medical Center. Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, Universitas Indonesia.Sari, N,P,P,F & Ramantha, I,W.(2015). Pengaruh Sikap Skeptisme, Pengalaman Audit, Kompetensi, Dan Independensi Auditor Pada Kualitas Audit. Jurnal Akuntansi Universitas Udayana, 11(2). Bali : Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Udayana.Sososutikno, Christina. 2003. Hubungan Tekanan Anggaran Waktu Dengan Perilaku Disfungsional Serta Pengaruhnya Terhadap Kualitas Audit. Simposium Nasional Akuntansi VI, Oktober : 1116-1124.Stefhany, P., & Amanah, L. (2017). Analisis Faktor-Faktor Yang Mempengaruhi Kualitas Audit Publik. Jurnal Ilmu dan Riset Akuntansi, 6 (10). Surabaya: Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Ekonomi Indonesia (STIESIA).Tjun, Law Tjun, Elyzabet Indrawati Marpaung dan Santy Setiawan. 2012. Pengaruh Kompetensi dan Independensi terhadap Kualitas Audit. Jurnal Akuntansi. Vol.4 No.1(Mei)Wiratama, W,J ., & Budiartha, K. (2015). Pengaruh Independensi, Pengalaman Kerja, Due Professional Care Dan Akuntabilitas Terhadap Kualitas Audit. Jurnal Akuntansi Universitas Udayana, 10 (1). Bali: Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Udayana (UNUD).Wulandari, L,G,A,N ., & Wirakusuma, M,G. (2017). 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Access to health care is an important component of an overall health system and a major indicator of growth. Health care planning and Geographic Information System (GIS) are two relevant fields that depend upon spatial data. GIS plays an essential role in helping public health organizations to understand population health and make decisions with the powerful tools and situation that GIS technology provides. The purpose of the study to investigated the spatial distribution of health care centers in Minna, Nigeria with a view to use Geographic Information System (GIS) technique in health care management and planning. The method is a qualitative research that is used in making decisions in order to have a strong understanding of government policies and programs. Beyond the many uses of a GIS in health applications, the greatest power of a GIS lies in its ability to integrate information from disparate sources. Traffic disturbances and poor road network were observed to be the major factors militating against effective health care facilities location in the study area. Keywords: Geographic Information Systems, Healthcare, Planning, Remote Sensing, Research References ReferencesAbbas, I.I, Auta, S.Z and Na'iya, R.M (2012) Health Care Facilities Mapping and Database Creation Using GIS in Chikun Local Government, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Global Journal of Human Social Sciences (B) Vol. XII, Issue X, Version 1, pp 10-18 Abegunde, A.A.and Adedigba, A.M. (2011). Teaching Hospitals in African Nations: Infrastructure for Regional or Local Community Development? The African Symposium, Vol. 11, No. 2, p 49-59 Abubakar, M.S, Dalhatu, U. and Adamu M.Y (2008) Creating a GIS application for local health care planning in Nassarawa State. Indian Journal of Multidisciplinary Research; 4(4)557-592 Adejuyigbe, O. 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Ausgehend von einem vielfaltsorientierten Inklusionsverständnis zeigt die vorliegende Arbeit auf, dass Inklusion im Arbeitsfeld Schulsozialarbeit nicht nur gemäß der UN-Behindertenkonvention als Recht von Menschen mit Behinderung auf Teilhabe und Bildung an Regelschulen auslegt wird, sondern: 1. ein Prozess ist. 2. sich mit der Identifizierung und Beseitigung von Barrieren beschäftigt. 3. Präsenz, Teilhabe und den Erfolg aller Schülerinnen und Schüler anstrebt. 4. sich insbesondere auf Gruppen von Lernenden bezieht, die von gesellschaftlicher Marginalisierung, sozialem Ausschuss und Schulversagen bedroht sind. (vgl. Deutsche UNESCO-Kommission e.V. 2009:8ff; Lindmeier 2010:197) Diese Inklusionsdeutung hat folgende zwei Konsequenzen für die erfolgreiche Bewältigung der Inklusionsanforderung in der Schulsozialarbeit: 1. Schulsozialarbeit an Schulen etablieren und dabei die Verschränkung von Schul- und Jugendhilfelogik in Strukturen, Prozessen, Entscheidungen der jeweiligen Schule für die rechtzeitige und passgenaue Unterstützung von Schülerinnen und Schülern zielgerichtet gestalten. 2. Heranwachsende durch Interventionen und Maßnahmen nicht nur für Schulprozesse und –anforderungen zu stärken, sondern auch für die Anforderungen ihrer Lebenswelt und der anderen für sie relevanten gesellschaftlichen Bereiche tüchtig zu machen. Die Förderung der (politischen) Beteiligung von Einheimischen und Zugewanderten erweist sich durch gezielte Prozesse, Beteiligungsmöglichkeiten, Strukturen und passgenaue Informationsgestaltung als wesentlichen Bestandteil einer inklusionsorientierten Schulsozialarbeit. Durch systemische Steuerung werden Begegnungen und Auseinandersetzungen bzw. Interaktionen mit dem Anderen (mit oder ohne Beeinträchtigung, trotz kultureller, sozialer, psychischer und physischer Verschiedenheit) auf allen relevanten Schul- und Gesellschaftsebenen bzw. -bereichen Inbegriff gelingender Inklusionsarbeit. Die Art und Weise wie diese Auffassung von Inklusion in der Schulsozialarbeit umgesetzt wird, ergeht aus einer sequentiellen Kombination unterschiedlicher Forschungsmethoden anhand dieses Werkes. Das genannte Inklusionsverständnis wird auf alltagspraktische Deutungs- bzw. Handlungsmuster heruntergebrochen, die sich in der qualitativen Untersuchung herauskristallisiert haben ebenso wie damit verbundene Parameter der Inklusionsbewältigung. Anhand festgelegter Messkriterien werden diese Ergebnisse in der quantitativen Analysephase auf ihre tatsächliche Relevanz und Umsetzung im Praxisalltag von Schulsozialarbeitenden getestet. In diesem Zusammenhang geben Rückmeldungen zum Geleisteten sowie die Bewertung und Überprüfung des Erreichten im Verhältnis zum Erzielten Hinweise auf Erfolge und mögliche Verbesserungspotenziale. Denn je nach Zielgruppe und damit verbundene Deutungsmuster von Inklusion werden unterschiedliche Instrumente und Herangehensweisen umgesetzt. So wird für das Verständnis von Inklusion als Etablierung von Schulsozialarbeit an Schulen beispielsweise auf Öffentlichkeitsarbeit und Lobbyismus in Form von Arbeitsgemeinschaften für Schulsozialarbeit zurückgegriffen. Diese zielgruppenspezifische inklusive Herangehensweise der Schulsozialarbeit hat das Potenzial, sowohl den unterschiedlichen Beteiligten mit ihren jeweiligen Beitrag und Nutzen zu verdeutlichen, als auch den für die Schulsozialarbeit ihnen gegenüber anfallenden Aufgaben. Und zwar auf institutioneller, programmatischer und individueller Ebene, wie auch die Notwendigkeit der aktiven politischen Beteiligung von Schulsozialarbeitenden, um auf politischer Ebene die für ihre Inklusionsarbeit förderlichen Rahmenbedingungen ausbauen zu können. Inklusionsarbeit ist für die Schulsozialarbeit somit auch politische Arbeit – auch im Sinne der Demokratisierung von jungen Menschen. Bei der Umsetzung von Inklusion durch Schulsozialarbeit treten zwar verschiedene Schwierigkeiten und Begrenzungen auf, wie etwa unzureichende Ressourcen in der Gestaltung der Erziehungspartnerschaft zwischen Elternhaus und Schule und im Management zu hoher Fallaufkommen. Aber an der tatsächlichen Mitwirkung von ursprünglich skeptischen Zielpersonen der Schulsozialarbeit gegenüber beispielsweise oder am erfolgreichen Schulverlauf und den konkreten beruflichen Perspektiven unterstützter Schülerinnen und Schülern ist zu erkennen, dass die Anforderung der Inklusion tatsächlich bewältigt wird. Die vorliegende Arbeit reiht sich somit nicht nur in die Debatte um Inklusion in der deutschen Gesellschaft bzw. in der Sozialen Arbeit ein und zeigt auf, dass Inklusion integraler Bestandteil der Schulsozialarbeit ist, sondern tangiert auch den Fach-diskurs um die Kooperation unterschiedlicher Professionen zum Zwecke der Förde-rung der Entwicklung von Heranwachsenden. Die interprofessionelle Zusammenarbeit stellt sich dabei als wesentlichen Faktor für den Erfolg von Inklusionsbemühungen der Schulsozialarbeitenden heraus. Grundlage dafür ist das Verständnis von Gesellschaft als Gefüge interdependenter Bereiche, deren Akteurinnen und Akteure miteinander interagieren sollen, damit Inklusion als Vision einer Gesellschaft in der, jedes Mitglied die Beteiligungsmöglichkeiten, die für ihn geeignet sind, erhält, erfolgreich umgesetzt werden kann. Auch bietet diese Forschung Anlass für weiterführende Analysen, weil die Befragten eigene ergänzende Sinndeutungen von Inklusion über die vom Fragebogen vorgegebenen Deutungsmuster hinaus angegeben haben. Daran können weitere Forschungen ebenso anknüpfen, wie auch an die hier bereits dargestellten Argumentationsstränge, die zahlreiche Anhaltspunkte für die Qualitätsentwicklung im Arbeitsfeld Schulsozialarbeit bieten. Zuletzt ist an dieser Stelle summarisch zu notieren, dass die erfolgreiche Bewälti-gung der Inklusionsanforderung durch Schulsozialarbeit sich am besten an den folgenden sechs Punkten orientieren soll: 1. Von welcher Inklusionsdeutung ist die Rede? 2. Welche Vorgehensweisen werden für ihre Realisierung umgesetzt? 3. Welche Ergebnisse erzielen diese Herangehensweisen? 4. Welche Wechselwirkungen ergeben sich zwischen dem umgesetzten Vor-gehen und den Ergebnissen? 5. Was erweist sich dabei als bewährt und was soll ansonsten verbessert werden? 6. Welche Maßnahmen werden wie und mit wem wann umgesetzt, um die angestrebten Verbesserungen bzw. die anvisierte Inklusionsdeutung zu realisieren? ; Starting from a diversity oriented inclusion understanding shows the present dissertation on, that inclusion in the working field school social work is interpreted not only in accordance with the UN Disability Convention as a right of people with disabilities to participation and education like in mainstream schools, but as: 1. A process. 2. Dealing with the identification and removal of barriers. 3. Presence, participation and the success of all students seeking 4. Including in particular groups of learners who are at risk of social marginalization, social committee and school failure (cf. German Commission for UNESCO 2009, p. 8ff.; Lindmeier 2010, p. 197) This inclusion interpretation has the following two consequences for the successful management of the inclusion requirement in the work field school social work: 1. Establish school social work at schools and thereby make the interconnection of school logic and youth welfare logic in structures, processes, decisions of the respective school for the timely, tailor-made and targeted support of students. 2. To strengthen adolescents through interventions and actions not only for school processes and requirements, but also for the needs of their living environment and of relevant other sectors of society for them. Promoting the (political) participation of local people and immigrants through specific processes, investment opportunities, structures and precise information design implements an essential component of an inclusion oriented school social work. Then this systemic control leads interactions with others (with or without disabilities, despite cultural, social, psychological and physical diversity) at all relevant educa-tional and social levels to successful inclusion work. The way in which this notion of inclusion is implemented in the school social work has been found out through a sequential combination of different research methods in this dissertation. The inclusion understanding is broken down into practical interpretive or behavioral patterns that have emerged in the qualitative research as well as related parameters of inclusion coping. Based on defined measurement criteria, these results has been tested in the quantitative analysis on their actual relevance and implementation in daily practice of school social workers. In this context, feedback on work done as well as the assessment and verification of achievements give in relationship to the achieved success evidence of potential improvements out. Because depending on the target audience and related interpretation patterns of inclusion different instruments and approaches will be implemented. For the understanding of inclusion as establishment of school social work at schools for example, public relations and lobbyism in the form of working groups for school social work are done. This targeted approach of inclusion in school social work has the potential to clarify various stakeholders with their respective contributions and benefits, as well as the necessary tasks of school social work towards them. This can be shown at the insti-tutional, programmatic and individual level, as well as the need of active political participation of school social workers in order to perform their working conditions. As consequence implementing inclusion means for school social work thus political work - also in terms of the democratization of young people. In the implementation of inclusion through school social workers indeed occur various difficulties and limitations, such as insufficient resources in the design of the educational partnership between home and school or such as insufficient staff in the management of excessive caseload. But on the participation of originally skeptical target people in interventions of school social work for example , or on success-ful school history and the concrete job prospects of supported students can be seen that the requirement of inclusion is been successfully managed. The present study is not only been classify in the debate about inclusion in the german society or in social work and demonstrates that inclusion is integrate in school social work , but it also affects the professional discourse to the cooperation of various professions for the purpose of promoting the development of adolescents . Then the inter-professional collaboration is emphasized here as an essential factor for the success of inclusion efforts of school social workers. This is based on the understanding of society as a structure of interdependent areas whose actors should interact so that inclusion as a vision of a society in which each member receives participation opportunities that are suitable for him, can be successfully implemented. This research provides also an opportunity for further analysis because the re-spondents indicated their own complementary interpretations of inclusion beyond the meanings given on the questionnaire. Those interpretations can also build further research, as well as the lines of argumentation already illustrated here, which offer various indications to the quality development for the work field school social work. At least it is summarily to note that the successful management of inclusion request by school social work is best to adhere by responding the following six questions: 1. From which interpretation of speech meaning inclusion is been talking about? 2. Which procedures are implemented for their realization? 3. What results achieving these approaches? 4. Which relations arise between the implemented actions and their results? 5. What might be good or ought to be improved? 6. Which steps are how and with whom when implemented in order to realize the desired improvements or the targeted interpretation of speech?