Suchergebnisse

The interpretation of WTO rules is the main stake of the appeal stage of the Dispute Settlement System. This intellectual process aims at establishing the meaning of the rules. The Appellate Body has thus a strong normative power. Moreover it is de facto the only one to exercise this competence without appeal. However, this competence is limited by the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes which requires the Appellate Body to provide security and predictability to the multilateral trading system. Yet, interpretation is a near discretionary operation by nature and cannot, in theory, meet the security goal. This study demonstrates that the Appellate Body, though, manages to face this double challenge. It has to bring, thanks to interpretation, a security feeling to the WTO Members and to provide security to the system. The Appellate Body is careful about the implementation of interpretation because it is aware that interpretation is above all understood as a technical operation. Its interpretative technique is rational and, even if it is not able to ensure predictability, it brings the Members a security feeling. Its interpretative policy is based on the integration of WTO law in the international legal system and on the development and preservation of unity of the WTO system. It establishes a situation of relative legal certainty. In this way, the Appellate Body manages to use legal certainty as an interpretative principle. ; L'interprétation des dispositions des accords de l'OMC constitue l'enjeu principal de la phase d'appel du système de règlement des différends. Ce processus intellectuel vise à établir le sens des normes. La compétence d'interprétation procure donc un pouvoir normatif important que l'Organe d'appel est, en pratique, le seul à détenir en dernier ressort à l'OMC. Cependant, elle est encadrée par l'obligation, imposée par le Mémorandum d'accord sur les règles et procédures régissant le règlement des différends, d'assurer la sécurité et la prévisibilité du système commercial multilatéral. Or, l'interprétation est une opération, par nature, quasi discrétionnaire. Elle ne peut donc théoriquement pas répondre à l'objectif de sécurité. Cette thèse montre que l'Organe d'appel parvient pourtant à faire face à ce double défi : procurer, par le biais de l'interprétation, un sentiment de sécurité juridique aux membres, et assurer un minimum de sécurité juridique au système. L'Organe d'appel a conscience que l'interprétation est avant tout perçue comme une opération technique et soigne sa mise en œuvre. Sa technique interprétative rationnelle, sans être en mesure de garantir la prévisibilité, lui permet néanmoins de procurer aux membres de l'OMC un sentiment de sécurité juridique. Sa politique interprétative, basée sur l'intégration du droit de l'OMC dans le système juridique international et sur le développement et le maintien de l'unité du système OMC, lui permet, quant à elle, d'instaurer de facto une situation de relative sécurité juridique. L'Organe d'appel parvient ainsi à faire de la sécurité juridique un principe d'interprétation.

In this article, we address the question of the uses of the calling device has projects in local public action and its effects. The analysis is based on a case study 'microscope' of four local authority application process has a call regional projects on cultural heritage. Increasingly uses this instrument fits in the spectrum of modes of government incentives claimant is the subsidiarity principle. The study brings to light yet dynamic autodiscipline silent, masked by appearances of choice. The urgency in which the nomination is performed, anticipatory strategies and writing the 'good' project, and the effects of this process noticeable in the postures mission charged thus strongly regulates ownership 'situated 'the criteria of the call projects through production of benchmarks under uncertainty. Adapted from the source document.

This article examines the history of the development of American universalism starting from the premise that the major philanthropic foundations, having emerged early on the international scene, are a locus where it crystallizes. Starting in the 1890s, the United States possessed the means to achieve their international ambition. This is also when universalism was forged among the new elites, of which the large philanthropic societies are an emanation, which is based on the certainty that the United States held the key to the future of humanity. It matured between the 1890s & the interwar period, to demonstrate its full force after 1945,due to the superpower status the U.S. had then acquired. The action of foundations should be resituated in this perspective: with the early 20th century, they devised a world policy that closely combined the certainty of embodying the general interest & a desire to spread the American model. The Rockefeller Foundation demonstrates this in emblematic fashion. Adapted from the source document.

In November 2007, the National Intelligence Council, grouping the 16 main intelligence organizations in the United States, published its bombshell report on Iran. Contradicting their opinion of 2005, these experts now state, with a "high degree of certainty," that Tehran had actually halted their program to develop an atomic bomb. The timing of this announcement gave rise to all sorts of theories: in addition to one supposing certain departments taking revenge for being ill-treated since Iraq, other theories involved political maneuvering in the run-up to the 2008 presidential election, an Iranian disinformation operation, or simply incompetence. The report obviously contains facts. But the way they are being presented is not so innocent. The danger is that by eliminating a credible military threat, one also eliminates any possibility of effective sanctions. Adapted from the source document.