Suchergebnisse

First manifestations of the Lithuanisation in the Lithuanian Catholic Church have been seen in the historical literature since the middle of the 19th century. The problem of Church depolonisation remained live in the beginning of 20th century and after 1918. Specific situation emerged when the interests of the Catholic Church and state crossed very often and sometimes went in the same direction. Collision could not happen between State and Church because Lithuanians – Catholic clergymen – were spreaders of national and public ideas. Based on the materials found in the curia archives of Kaunas archdiocese and using data obtained from periodicals of the period, the author aims at disclosing the attitude of the hierarchy of the Lithuanian Catholic Church (Samogitian diocese) towards the first government loan of 1919. The focus in the paper will be held on the question why the Lithuanian Catholic Church refused to act according its strategic line – lithuanisation of the Church during the announcement about the first governmental loan. State institutions in Poland were interested about the destiny of the first government loan. Deepening Polish-Lithuanian conflict supposed great interest of Polish intelligence office in Lithuania. The reports of Polish intelligence officers sent from Kaunas describing Kaunas life could be found in the Central Archive of Polish Army in Rembertow (Warsaw). Second part of sources consist of the periodicals of Lithuanian Christian Democratic party: "Laisvė" (Freedom) and "Vienybė" (Unity). These newspapers kept track of events in Lithuanian political, cultural, economic and social life realities very carefully and so formed the civic position of its readers. A complicated geopolitical situation and a host of internal problems aggravated the consolidation of the statehood of Lithuania. The first government loan of 1919 marked a desire to improve financial status of the young Lithuanian state.[.].

First manifestations of the Lithuanisation in the Lithuanian Catholic Church have been seen in the historical literature since the middle of the 19th century. The problem of Church depolonisation remained live in the beginning of 20th century and after 1918. Specific situation emerged when the interests of the Catholic Church and state crossed very often and sometimes went in the same direction. Collision could not happen between State and Church because Lithuanians – Catholic clergymen – were spreaders of national and public ideas. Based on the materials found in the curia archives of Kaunas archdiocese and using data obtained from periodicals of the period, the author aims at disclosing the attitude of the hierarchy of the Lithuanian Catholic Church (Samogitian diocese) towards the first government loan of 1919. The focus in the paper will be held on the question why the Lithuanian Catholic Church refused to act according its strategic line – lithuanisation of the Church during the announcement about the first governmental loan. State institutions in Poland were interested about the destiny of the first government loan. Deepening Polish-Lithuanian conflict supposed great interest of Polish intelligence office in Lithuania. The reports of Polish intelligence officers sent from Kaunas describing Kaunas life could be found in the Central Archive of Polish Army in Rembertow (Warsaw). Second part of sources consist of the periodicals of Lithuanian Christian Democratic party: "Laisvė" (Freedom) and "Vienybė" (Unity). These newspapers kept track of events in Lithuanian political, cultural, economic and social life realities very carefully and so formed the civic position of its readers. A complicated geopolitical situation and a host of internal problems aggravated the consolidation of the statehood of Lithuania. The first government loan of 1919 marked a desire to improve financial status of the young Lithuanian state.[.].

The aim of the article is to discuss the possibilities of reducing the opposition between the Peasant Populists and the Church that have existed in parliamentary Lithuania during 1918–1926. To reach this aim the following objectives have been set: first, to reveal some aspects of political activities of the official Catholic Church and clergy which might have weakened the disagreement between the Catholic Church and the Peasant Populists; second, to present some problems of internal life of the clergy and clashes between the Catholic Church and laymen; finally, to reveal that there were possibilities to reduce the opposition not only in the activities of the official Catholic Church, but also the Peasant Populists. The research is based on the following sources: most information is gathered from the newspaper for the clergy "Ganytojas", Catholic newspaper "Žvaigždė" and the newspaper of the Peasant Populists "Lietuvos žinios". The documents of the Lithuanian State Historical Archives (stock 1671) are very important source for this article as well. The analysis has revealed that, on the one hand, the attitude of the Catholic Church towards political parties of parliamentary Lithuania (except Christian Democrats) was visibly negative. On the other hand, in public life official Catholic Church and its press tried to avoid open criticism of the political parties. Leader of various Catholic organisations, editor of "Ganytojas", Mykolas Vaitkus, though being an active participant in political processes, was able to critically evaluate problems inside the clergy. He acknowledged that "Lietuvos žinios" was an influential paper, despite the fact that it often criticized the institutional Church and priests. Some articles from this newspaper were favourably evaluated by M. Vaitkus in his reviews in "Ganytojas". [.]

The aim of the article is to discuss the possibilities of reducing the opposition between the Peasant Populists and the Church that have existed in parliamentary Lithuania during 1918–1926. To reach this aim the following objectives have been set: first, to reveal some aspects of political activities of the official Catholic Church and clergy which might have weakened the disagreement between the Catholic Church and the Peasant Populists; second, to present some problems of internal life of the clergy and clashes between the Catholic Church and laymen; finally, to reveal that there were possibilities to reduce the opposition not only in the activities of the official Catholic Church, but also the Peasant Populists. The research is based on the following sources: most information is gathered from the newspaper for the clergy "Ganytojas", Catholic newspaper "Žvaigždė" and the newspaper of the Peasant Populists "Lietuvos žinios". The documents of the Lithuanian State Historical Archives (stock 1671) are very important source for this article as well. The analysis has revealed that, on the one hand, the attitude of the Catholic Church towards political parties of parliamentary Lithuania (except Christian Democrats) was visibly negative. On the other hand, in public life official Catholic Church and its press tried to avoid open criticism of the political parties. Leader of various Catholic organisations, editor of "Ganytojas", Mykolas Vaitkus, though being an active participant in political processes, was able to critically evaluate problems inside the clergy. He acknowledged that "Lietuvos žinios" was an influential paper, despite the fact that it often criticized the institutional Church and priests. Some articles from this newspaper were favourably evaluated by M. Vaitkus in his reviews in "Ganytojas". [.]

The aim of the article is to discuss the possibilities of reducing the opposition between the Peasant Populists and the Church that have existed in parliamentary Lithuania during 1918–1926. To reach this aim the following objectives have been set: first, to reveal some aspects of political activities of the official Catholic Church and clergy which might have weakened the disagreement between the Catholic Church and the Peasant Populists; second, to present some problems of internal life of the clergy and clashes between the Catholic Church and laymen; finally, to reveal that there were possibilities to reduce the opposition not only in the activities of the official Catholic Church, but also the Peasant Populists. The research is based on the following sources: most information is gathered from the newspaper for the clergy "Ganytojas", Catholic newspaper "Žvaigždė" and the newspaper of the Peasant Populists "Lietuvos žinios". The documents of the Lithuanian State Historical Archives (stock 1671) are very important source for this article as well. The analysis has revealed that, on the one hand, the attitude of the Catholic Church towards political parties of parliamentary Lithuania (except Christian Democrats) was visibly negative. On the other hand, in public life official Catholic Church and its press tried to avoid open criticism of the political parties. Leader of various Catholic organisations, editor of "Ganytojas", Mykolas Vaitkus, though being an active participant in political processes, was able to critically evaluate problems inside the clergy. He acknowledged that "Lietuvos žinios" was an influential paper, despite the fact that it often criticized the institutional Church and priests. Some articles from this newspaper were favourably evaluated by M. Vaitkus in his reviews in "Ganytojas". [.]

Today the Old Believers enjoy the status of a traditional religious community. The title of the Master's paper - "The Old Believers Church in Lithuania in 1918-1940" -reflects the subject of study dealing with its legal status, religious organisation, social and political involvement. The choice of the subject was determined by the importance of research on Lithuania's traditional religious minorities. Owing to the fact that over a long period Lithuania's history research has been one-sided, focusing mostly on ethnic history and missing the civil one, the historical image of Lithuania's religious communities has remained somewhat incomplete. So far no exhaustive studies related to the history of Lithuania's communities of traditional religious minorities have been made. In most cases the mentioned studies dealt only with the history of the Lithuanian Catholic Church. The goal of the paper is the study of the Old Believers Church in Lithuania (further referred to as "OBCL") as an organizational institution. The objectives to achieve the set goal: - to analyze the legal status and development of the Old Believers Church in Lithuania in 1918-1940 in the context of State - Church relations; - to examine the specific development features of the organization of the Old Believers Church in Lithuania, i.e. formation and activity of institutions, adaptation to the new political situation and solution of related problems, relations with organizations of the Old Believers Church in other countries. - to examine the factors of OBCL social and political involvement. In terms of intensity of cooperation between the State and religious organizations in the period under study the model of the Lithuanian State may be characterized as the State Not separated from the Church, where different religions enjoy relatively equal rights. Summarizing the State-OBCL relations, the state policy in respect of OBCL can be characterized as tending to compromise. The State endeavoured not to interfere with OBCL internal affairs; however, the very model of relations in effect between the State and the Church in Lithuania called for intervention of authorities into OBCL internal life. On the one hand, this policy also provided certain protection to the Old Believers minority when applying to it certain analogous decisions mainly adopted to protect the interests of the predominant "state church". On the other hand, this kind of state policy sometimes resulted in violation of OBCL autonomy rights. In evaluating the OBCL legal status, it is important to note that during the whole interwar period the State-Church relations were governed by provisional law, meaning that the OBCL legal status was not finally regulated. The State failed to officially recognize a single OBCL internal document. It is this uncertainty that made it possible for the state authorities to intervene in OBCL internal matters. The final recognition of OBCL supreme authorities was determined by state institutions and not by OBCL organizational principle, which is an essential part in the religion of the "priestless pomors". Strange enough, but as the case with OBCL is, these violations of autonomy had a positive effect on the preservation of integrity of OBCL organization. With all that, even willing to accept the stabilizing role of intervention of authorities, the State in democratic societies may not take steps to ensure the survival of religious communities or their government in a centralized way. Summing up the OBCL social and political involvement, it is worth saying that for a long time having no opportunity to be heard in public and political spheres, the Old Believers of the interwar period were gradually getting involved in the social and political life of Lithuania. In this way this study introduces certain corrections to the "dark", "passive", "colonist" image of an Old Believer.

Today the Old Believers enjoy the status of a traditional religious community. The title of the Master's paper - "The Old Believers Church in Lithuania in 1918-1940" -reflects the subject of study dealing with its legal status, religious organisation, social and political involvement. The choice of the subject was determined by the importance of research on Lithuania's traditional religious minorities. Owing to the fact that over a long period Lithuania's history research has been one-sided, focusing mostly on ethnic history and missing the civil one, the historical image of Lithuania's religious communities has remained somewhat incomplete. So far no exhaustive studies related to the history of Lithuania's communities of traditional religious minorities have been made. In most cases the mentioned studies dealt only with the history of the Lithuanian Catholic Church. The goal of the paper is the study of the Old Believers Church in Lithuania (further referred to as "OBCL") as an organizational institution. The objectives to achieve the set goal: - to analyze the legal status and development of the Old Believers Church in Lithuania in 1918-1940 in the context of State - Church relations; - to examine the specific development features of the organization of the Old Believers Church in Lithuania, i.e. formation and activity of institutions, adaptation to the new political situation and solution of related problems, relations with organizations of the Old Believers Church in other countries. - to examine the factors of OBCL social and political involvement. In terms of intensity of cooperation between the State and religious organizations in the period under study the model of the Lithuanian State may be characterized as the State Not separated from the Church, where different religions enjoy relatively equal rights. Summarizing the State-OBCL relations, the state policy in respect of OBCL can be characterized as tending to compromise. The State endeavoured not to interfere with OBCL internal affairs; however, the very model of relations in effect between the State and the Church in Lithuania called for intervention of authorities into OBCL internal life. On the one hand, this policy also provided certain protection to the Old Believers minority when applying to it certain analogous decisions mainly adopted to protect the interests of the predominant "state church". On the other hand, this kind of state policy sometimes resulted in violation of OBCL autonomy rights. In evaluating the OBCL legal status, it is important to note that during the whole interwar period the State-Church relations were governed by provisional law, meaning that the OBCL legal status was not finally regulated. The State failed to officially recognize a single OBCL internal document. It is this uncertainty that made it possible for the state authorities to intervene in OBCL internal matters. The final recognition of OBCL supreme authorities was determined by state institutions and not by OBCL organizational principle, which is an essential part in the religion of the "priestless pomors". Strange enough, but as the case with OBCL is, these violations of autonomy had a positive effect on the preservation of integrity of OBCL organization. With all that, even willing to accept the stabilizing role of intervention of authorities, the State in democratic societies may not take steps to ensure the survival of religious communities or their government in a centralized way. Summing up the OBCL social and political involvement, it is worth saying that for a long time having no opportunity to be heard in public and political spheres, the Old Believers of the interwar period were gradually getting involved in the social and political life of Lithuania. In this way this study introduces certain corrections to the "dark", "passive", "colonist" image of an Old Believer.

Today the Old Believers enjoy the status of a traditional religious community. The title of the Master's paper - "The Old Believers Church in Lithuania in 1918-1940" -reflects the subject of study dealing with its legal status, religious organisation, social and political involvement. The choice of the subject was determined by the importance of research on Lithuania's traditional religious minorities. Owing to the fact that over a long period Lithuania's history research has been one-sided, focusing mostly on ethnic history and missing the civil one, the historical image of Lithuania's religious communities has remained somewhat incomplete. So far no exhaustive studies related to the history of Lithuania's communities of traditional religious minorities have been made. In most cases the mentioned studies dealt only with the history of the Lithuanian Catholic Church. The goal of the paper is the study of the Old Believers Church in Lithuania (further referred to as "OBCL") as an organizational institution. The objectives to achieve the set goal: - to analyze the legal status and development of the Old Believers Church in Lithuania in 1918-1940 in the context of State - Church relations; - to examine the specific development features of the organization of the Old Believers Church in Lithuania, i.e. formation and activity of institutions, adaptation to the new political situation and solution of related problems, relations with organizations of the Old Believers Church in other countries. - to examine the factors of OBCL social and political involvement. In terms of intensity of cooperation between the State and religious organizations in the period under study the model of the Lithuanian State may be characterized as the State Not separated from the Church, where different religions enjoy relatively equal rights. Summarizing the State-OBCL relations, the state policy in respect of OBCL can be characterized as tending to compromise. The State endeavoured not to interfere with OBCL internal affairs; however, the very model of relations in effect between the State and the Church in Lithuania called for intervention of authorities into OBCL internal life. On the one hand, this policy also provided certain protection to the Old Believers minority when applying to it certain analogous decisions mainly adopted to protect the interests of the predominant "state church". On the other hand, this kind of state policy sometimes resulted in violation of OBCL autonomy rights. In evaluating the OBCL legal status, it is important to note that during the whole interwar period the State-Church relations were governed by provisional law, meaning that the OBCL legal status was not finally regulated. The State failed to officially recognize a single OBCL internal document. It is this uncertainty that made it possible for the state authorities to intervene in OBCL internal matters. The final recognition of OBCL supreme authorities was determined by state institutions and not by OBCL organizational principle, which is an essential part in the religion of the "priestless pomors". Strange enough, but as the case with OBCL is, these violations of autonomy had a positive effect on the preservation of integrity of OBCL organization. With all that, even willing to accept the stabilizing role of intervention of authorities, the State in democratic societies may not take steps to ensure the survival of religious communities or their government in a centralized way. Summing up the OBCL social and political involvement, it is worth saying that for a long time having no opportunity to be heard in public and political spheres, the Old Believers of the interwar period were gradually getting involved in the social and political life of Lithuania. In this way this study introduces certain corrections to the "dark", "passive", "colonist" image of an Old Believer.

Today the Old Believers enjoy the status of a traditional religious community. The title of the Master's paper - "The Old Believers Church in Lithuania in 1918-1940" -reflects the subject of study dealing with its legal status, religious organisation, social and political involvement. The choice of the subject was determined by the importance of research on Lithuania's traditional religious minorities. Owing to the fact that over a long period Lithuania's history research has been one-sided, focusing mostly on ethnic history and missing the civil one, the historical image of Lithuania's religious communities has remained somewhat incomplete. So far no exhaustive studies related to the history of Lithuania's communities of traditional religious minorities have been made. In most cases the mentioned studies dealt only with the history of the Lithuanian Catholic Church. The goal of the paper is the study of the Old Believers Church in Lithuania (further referred to as "OBCL") as an organizational institution. The objectives to achieve the set goal: - to analyze the legal status and development of the Old Believers Church in Lithuania in 1918-1940 in the context of State - Church relations; - to examine the specific development features of the organization of the Old Believers Church in Lithuania, i.e. formation and activity of institutions, adaptation to the new political situation and solution of related problems, relations with organizations of the Old Believers Church in other countries. - to examine the factors of OBCL social and political involvement. In terms of intensity of cooperation between the State and religious organizations in the period under study the model of the Lithuanian State may be characterized as the State Not separated from the Church, where different religions enjoy relatively equal rights. Summarizing the State-OBCL relations, the state policy in respect of OBCL can be characterized as tending to compromise. The State endeavoured not to interfere with OBCL internal affairs; however, the very model of relations in effect between the State and the Church in Lithuania called for intervention of authorities into OBCL internal life. On the one hand, this policy also provided certain protection to the Old Believers minority when applying to it certain analogous decisions mainly adopted to protect the interests of the predominant "state church". On the other hand, this kind of state policy sometimes resulted in violation of OBCL autonomy rights. In evaluating the OBCL legal status, it is important to note that during the whole interwar period the State-Church relations were governed by provisional law, meaning that the OBCL legal status was not finally regulated. The State failed to officially recognize a single OBCL internal document. It is this uncertainty that made it possible for the state authorities to intervene in OBCL internal matters. The final recognition of OBCL supreme authorities was determined by state institutions and not by OBCL organizational principle, which is an essential part in the religion of the "priestless pomors". Strange enough, but as the case with OBCL is, these violations of autonomy had a positive effect on the preservation of integrity of OBCL organization. With all that, even willing to accept the stabilizing role of intervention of authorities, the State in democratic societies may not take steps to ensure the survival of religious communities or their government in a centralized way. Summing up the OBCL social and political involvement, it is worth saying that for a long time having no opportunity to be heard in public and political spheres, the Old Believers of the interwar period were gradually getting involved in the social and political life of Lithuania. In this way this study introduces certain corrections to the "dark", "passive", "colonist" image of an Old Believer.

The establishment of the Lithuanian state and the consolidation of independence in the Republic of Lithuania (1918–1940) was accompanied by the construction of an appropriate collective memory and the accompanying historical narrative. The Catholic Church in Lithuania at that time was an authoritative institution that influenced various spheres of domestic life in the country; therefore, it could also influence the collective memory. This article attempts to answer whether the Catholic Church in Interwar Lithuania sought to form a collective memory. It is stated that the Lithuanian Episcopate did not demonstrate a purposeful desire to form a collective memory because it did not have a clear and unified approach to the culture of memory. There were other reasons: at first it was hindered by the worries of creating an independent ecclesiastical province of Lithuania, and from the end of the 1930s the Church's relations with the government became strained, as the latter hindered the social activity of Catholic society. The Church did not specifically shape its own story about the creation of a modern Lithuanian state and the history of modern Lithuania. However, the Church turned to this past when, in defending the freedom of action of the Catholic Church, it wanted to emphasise the role of the Church in the creation of an independent state of Lithuania.

The establishment of the Lithuanian state and the consolidation of independence in the Republic of Lithuania (1918–1940) was accompanied by the construction of an appropriate collective memory and the accompanying historical narrative. The Catholic Church in Lithuania at that time was an authoritative institution that influenced various spheres of domestic life in the country; therefore, it could also influence the collective memory. This article attempts to answer whether the Catholic Church in Interwar Lithuania sought to form a collective memory. It is stated that the Lithuanian Episcopate did not demonstrate a purposeful desire to form a collective memory because it did not have a clear and unified approach to the culture of memory. There were other reasons: at first it was hindered by the worries of creating an independent ecclesiastical province of Lithuania, and from the end of the 1930s the Church's relations with the government became strained, as the latter hindered the social activity of Catholic society. The Church did not specifically shape its own story about the creation of a modern Lithuanian state and the history of modern Lithuania. However, the Church turned to this past when, in defending the freedom of action of the Catholic Church, it wanted to emphasise the role of the Church in the creation of an independent state of Lithuania.

The establishment of the Lithuanian state and the consolidation of independence in the Republic of Lithuania (1918–1940) was accompanied by the construction of an appropriate collective memory and the accompanying historical narrative. The Catholic Church in Lithuania at that time was an authoritative institution that influenced various spheres of domestic life in the country; therefore, it could also influence the collective memory. This article attempts to answer whether the Catholic Church in Interwar Lithuania sought to form a collective memory. It is stated that the Lithuanian Episcopate did not demonstrate a purposeful desire to form a collective memory because it did not have a clear and unified approach to the culture of memory. There were other reasons: at first it was hindered by the worries of creating an independent ecclesiastical province of Lithuania, and from the end of the 1930s the Church's relations with the government became strained, as the latter hindered the social activity of Catholic society. The Church did not specifically shape its own story about the creation of a modern Lithuanian state and the history of modern Lithuania. However, the Church turned to this past when, in defending the freedom of action of the Catholic Church, it wanted to emphasise the role of the Church in the creation of an independent state of Lithuania.

The establishment of the Lithuanian state and the consolidation of independence in the Republic of Lithuania (1918–1940) was accompanied by the construction of an appropriate collective memory and the accompanying historical narrative. The Catholic Church in Lithuania at that time was an authoritative institution that influenced various spheres of domestic life in the country; therefore, it could also influence the collective memory. This article attempts to answer whether the Catholic Church in Interwar Lithuania sought to form a collective memory. It is stated that the Lithuanian Episcopate did not demonstrate a purposeful desire to form a collective memory because it did not have a clear and unified approach to the culture of memory. There were other reasons: at first it was hindered by the worries of creating an independent ecclesiastical province of Lithuania, and from the end of the 1930s the Church's relations with the government became strained, as the latter hindered the social activity of Catholic society. The Church did not specifically shape its own story about the creation of a modern Lithuanian state and the history of modern Lithuania. However, the Church turned to this past when, in defending the freedom of action of the Catholic Church, it wanted to emphasise the role of the Church in the creation of an independent state of Lithuania.

The concept of the capacities of the Holy Father and their divine origin. The overview of the institutions of the Curia of Rome: competences, hierarchy subordination and cooperation. The tasks and duties of the State Secretariat as the highest Church management institution. How do the Holy Popes manage Church via these institutions in the world? The relation of Vatican and the Holy See. The concept of General Meetings. Diplomatic relations between the Holy See and national governments of states, representation of the Holy Pope by local churches. The duties of the Nuncio.

The concept of the capacities of the Holy Father and their divine origin. The overview of the institutions of the Curia of Rome: competences, hierarchy subordination and cooperation. The tasks and duties of the State Secretariat as the highest Church management institution. How do the Holy Popes manage Church via these institutions in the world? The relation of Vatican and the Holy See. The concept of General Meetings. Diplomatic relations between the Holy See and national governments of states, representation of the Holy Pope by local churches. The duties of the Nuncio.