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AbstractDo the citizens have a role in constraining policies in autocratic governments? Usually the political and economic literature model autocracy as if the citizens have no role in constraining leader's behavior, but actually autocratic government are afraid of possible citizens' revolts. In this paper we focus on contemporary China to analyze how citizens might induce an autocratic government to adopt congruent policies. Although there is no party or electoral competition, the leader fears deposition by coup d'etat of the selectorate and revolutionary threats from citizens. We build a three player political agency model to study the role of both these constraints and we show that the effectiveness of the selectorate and of revolutionary threats are crucial factors in determining the policy outcomes. In particular, we show that the citizens can effectively discipline the leader because of the revolution threat notwithstanding the selectorate size, but this may result in a failed state when the costs of revolting and the selectorate size are small. As the size of the selectorate and the costs of revolution vary dramatically across countries, our result explain why different types of autocracies arise. In particular our model and results provide a useful framework to interpret China policy in the last twenty years.

India has unfriendly neighbours and yet there is hardly a significant external threat since the 1999 Kargil war involving Pakistan. What is dubbed as the biggest internal security threat to India is the left-wing-extremist movement that has spread to the majority of the Indian provinces in recent years. Also identified as the Maoist insurgency, it has ideologically inspired a large section of India's tribal population who, so far, remain left out from the mainstream politics. This is not merely a law-and-order problem, as was usually construed by the major security agencies in the past, but an outcome of the India's planned development strategies which failed to bring about uniform economic growth cutting across regions. Left-wing extremism is thus a contextual response to historical wrongs that the Indian state has committed by being indifferent to the poverty-stricken masses around the country. This is now recognized by the policy makers in India, who seem to have evolved an appropriate strategy by seeking to fulfil, on a priority basis, the basic human requirements of the disempowered sections of the population. The article thus argues that the threat to India's internal security is far more complex and cannot thus be addressed meaningfully by coercion alone; it requires a well thought out pro-people socio-economic programme, which needs to be applied regardless of class, clan and creed.

Citizens who lack basic skills and knowledge end up with unemployment or low-paying jobs. This leads to existence in poverty and a lack of opportunity to even voice. Low literacy levels affect economic development, diminish citizen participation and contribution, and are burdensome on nations. To address the issue, many nations consider, adopt, and support adult literacy programmes (ALP). Namibia is no exception. Hence, in 2003, the Adult Literacy Programme was initiated and is still actively engaging the targeted community members for acquiring basic skills and knowledge, thereby reducing poverty. Thus, the objective of this study is to assess ALP's success in poverty reduction as a citizenry approach. Based on the transformational learning theory and the capability approach, the qualitative research method is adopted, and data collection is done with structured interviews using a purposive sampling technique. Findings reflect ALP has enhanced the lives of participants and, therefore forms part of the measures to inhibit several social-related evils that cause poverty.

Islamic teachings and beliefs present the conceptual framework for preparing responsible and concerned citizens, while the acts of worship provide the training and upbringing of individuals and society for the purpose. A Muslim cannot stand indifferent to the needs and requirements of fellow human beings as well as towards the protection and judicious utilization of the nature and natural resources — aimed at comprehensive and all-round development of individual, society and the planet. With 97 percent population being Muslim, the sense of civic responsibility and obligations towards society finds solid ideological footings in Pakistan. It may be cemented further with spread of Islamic teachings, strengthening and channelizing the role of mosque, sensitization through media and synergizing the educational system, particularly the curriculum, for this grand purpose. The government's role Vis-à-vis providing an enabling environment, remains pivotal.
An earlier version of the paper was presented in the seminar titled Promoting Civic Responsibility in Technical Universities of Pakistan, organized by Centre for Policy Studies, COMSATS Institute of Information and Technology, Islamabad on November 26, 2013.