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This article provides an outline of the history of the American Empire's rise and transformations. The analysis examines the political situation in America around 1800 when the country was established as a republic at a time when international imperialism was prevalent with still powerful British, French, and Spanish empires. The article argues that the territorial expansion within the North American continent was conducted within the realms of imperial ideology, although, unlike other empires, once included in the empire each state became an equal participant in the central authority. The article poses a new type of empire that have emerged in America following the second world war; an American Empire based on international alliances for the purpose of international and national security based on voluntary participation, although subject to economic support or sanction. The article suggests that the war on terrorism has brought power politics and alliances that mirror classic imperial ideals, with an increase in military presence to enforce imperial alliances. The author concludes that based on the problems experienced with imperialistic use of power in Afghanistan and Iraq it is unlikely that the U.S. is establishing a new classical empire. This article is one in a series of articles on the topic of empires. References. E. Sundby

If the struggle for power becomes a matter of decision for a pol'al party or pol'al figure in a democracy, the ensuing action may not be in accord with previous behavior. The British pol'al scene shows an actual example of this kind of applied psychol. The Suez affair & its subsequent crisis created a serious psychol'al crisis in GB, a crisis so severe that Harold Macmillan had to deal with it by original methods. Forced to take measures, such as the one giving British shipowners the right to again use the canal, which really indicate the decline in British power, he nevertheless succeeded in restoring public confidence. He took his cabinet ministers in hand by allowing them a large measure of individual initiative, unlike Eden who supervised the most minute details of admin'tion. His authority over the Conservative party was very rapidly reaffirmed, to the point where he was able to force Lord Salisbury to leave the Cabinet. In the end he managed to get the Conservatives in Parliament behind him, by channeling their dislike toward the Labor Party, & by also directing their animosity toward the US & the UN. His apparent calm & indifference allowed him to take a neutral position toward these scapegoats, leaving vindictiveness to his partisans by this device. All of his efforts, however, did not succeed in restoring his prestige with the public who are less sensitive to the psychol'al techniques of the leader than the politicians, & who measure a politician in terms of his accomplishments, which have not been, so far very favorable. Tr by J. A. Broussard from IPSA.

Migration and mobility transform the daily lives and surroundings of those who travel and relocate, as well as the places they move from and to. This anthology presents some of the disparate perspectives, theories and methodologies that characterize research on migration and mobility.

Through the book's eleven chapters the authors shed light on international research on migration and Norwegian research on transience and tourism. The contributions include empirical studies of immigrant workers and their welfare, marginalization in the job market and opportunities for successors, social mobility in the new country, repro-migration, and local community responses and adaptation to mobility. The book also provides a comprehensive discussion of Norwegian integration policy and methodological challenges and blind spots in Norwegian migration research. On the whole, Migration and Mobility – Actions, Patterns and Perceptions in the Context of Norway is a significant contribution to the advancement of research in these areas.

The book will be of interest to everyone concerned with the study of migration and mobility in Norway, but especially to researchers in the field and students of sociology, social anthropology, human geography and other social sciences at the higher educational level.

Migration and Mobility has been edited by Mariann Villa (professor of sociology, NTNU), Erik T. Valestrand (doctoral fellow in sociology, NTNU) and Johan Fredrik Rye (professor of sociology, NTNU). - Migrasjon og mobilitet former hverdagsliv og omgivelser for dem som flytter og reiser, og på de stedene det flyttes og reises til. Denne antologien viser noe av mangfoldet av perspektiver, teorier og metodologier som preger forskningen innen migrasjon og mobilitet. Gjennom elleve kapitler belyser forfatterne internasjonal migrasjonsforskning og nasjonal flytte- og turismeforskning. Bidragene inkluderer empiriske studier av arbeidsinnvandrere og deres omsorgspraksis, marginalisering på arbeidsmarkedet og etterkommeres muligheter, innenlands sosial mobilitet, repromigrasjon og lokalsamfunns respons på og tilpasning til mobilitet. Boka tilbyr også en mer overordnet diskusjon om norsk integreringspolitikk og om metodologiske utfordringer og blindsoner i norsk migrasjonsforskning. Samlet sett er Migrasjon og mobilitet – handlinger, mønstre og forståelser i norsk sammenheng et bidrag til videre utvikling av forskningsfeltet migrasjon og mobilitet. Boka retter seg mot alle med interesse for hvordan migrasjon og mobilitet studeres i norsk sammenheng, men særlig mot forskere på feltet og studenter i sosiologi, sosialantropologi, samfunnsgeografi og andre samfunnsvitenskaper på høyskole- og universitetsnivå. Migrasjon og mobilitet er redigert av Mariann Villa (professor i sosiologi, NTNU), Erik T. Valestrand (doktorgradsstipendiat i sosiologi, NTNU), og Johan Fredrik Rye (professor i sosiologi, NTNU).

Uncertainty at many levels in classical singers' career trajectories and professional practice is a fulcrum in this book. Produced through life history interviews with 14 professional Scandinavian singers, born between 1945 and 1978, the study follows the participants' experiences of possibilities and limitations of action through their life course. It obtains some of the prerequisites that underpin the practical knowledge of the singer considering the cultural traditions of classical singing and the hierarchical field of music the singers aim for and act within. The overarching theoretical framework is founded in Pierre Bourdieu's theory of practice, but the study has an interdisciplinary approach. Here, the pluralistic life course perspective forms the basis for understanding processes and changes over time. The study shows how singers' choices and strategies, reflections, opinions and preferences, can be understood in relation to their backgrounds, and their social positions in the classical music field where music is the interconnecting element. A comprehensive feature of the research material is how uncertainties are expressed as assessments as an answer to the uncertainty that characterizes singers as well as singing education, singing performance and the singing profession. This dominant practice of assessment is interpreted as a circular phenomenon, where the assessment culture becomes a consequence of uncertainty, while increasing uncertainty. - "Hvordan konstitueres klassiske sangeres løpebaner og sosiale praksis? Med utgangspunkt i livshistorieintervju med 14 profesjonelle skandinaviske sangere født mellom 1945 og 1978, søker denne studien en mer nyansert og helhetlig forståelse av denne kunstnergruppens mulighetsbetingelser. I boka ser forfatteren nærmere på sangernes oppvekstår, studietid og yrkesliv, samt overgangen mellom disse. I denne sammenheng gjøres usikkerhet til et omdreiningspunkt. Gjennom den komplekse relasjonen mellom det individuelle og kollektive, analyseres sangeres erfaringer i lys av historiske, sosiale og kulturelle mønstre som former løpebanene og strukturerer praksisen på bestemte måter. Her legger den klassiske sangens tradisjon sterke føringer. Den overordnede teoretiske rammen er fundert i Pierre Bourdieus praksisteori. Det pluralistiske livsløpsperspektivet utgjør grunnlaget for forståelsen av prosesser og endring over tid.

Det konkurransepregede og uforutsigbare arbeidsmarkedet som omgir sangerne medfører høy grad av risiko og usikkerhet. Boka belyser hvordan sangere legitimerer eget yrke og hvordan handlinger, valg, strategier, refleksjoner, meninger og preferanser kan forstås i relasjon til deres bakgrunn og til posisjoner i det klassiske musikkfeltet der musikken er det bindende element. Et gjennomgående trekk i forskningsmaterialet er hvordan usikkerhet kommer til uttrykk som vurderinger. Slik oppstår et sirkulært fenomen, hvor vurderingskulturen blir en konsekvens av usikkerhet, samtidig som den forsterker usikkerheten som preger sangerne så vel som sangopplæringen, sangutøvelsen og sangeryrket."

Why do we focus on the internal arrangements of the contractual process from a leadership perspective? Through empirical research where we have asked questions about the internal organizational arrangements, what kind of knowledge the organization need, and how institutional arrangements affect the contract process, we have tried to answer the main research question. We have also carried with us a question of if the organization's attachment to the public or private sector affects the arrangements. I have conducted a comparative case study where data has been generated from two public sector organizations, The National Road Administration, Helsebygg Midt-Norge, one private sector organization, Siemens, and one hybrid organization, NTE. Data was primarily generated from the governance system of the different organizations, and informant interviews. The analysis was carried out by two steps; first an empirical analysis, then a theoretical analysis, based on contractual theory, of the empirical findings. The empirical analysis shows that the organizations share the same thoughts on how to organize the contractual work; the division between the line and the project organization, the distribution of decision-making authority, and the institutionalization of a specific governance system. The organizational processes are formalized, and the governance system gives the clear recommendation on desired actions. The empirical data gives a clear understanding that the contract process is dominated by one profession — the engineers. Regarding the question on knowledge, I found the organizations to be interested foremost on problem solving competencies (engineering competencies). Other competencies, for example economic or legal competencies, where viewed as support competencies. We also found that personal skills in handling the complex and difficult processes and attitude toward ethics seemed to be of importance. On the question on how institutional elements in the organizational environment affected the contract process, we found that the overall interest of the organizations was stability and predictability. We also found that the market mechanisms cause the organizations some worry. In the end, the empirical findings did not give us any strong reasons to differentiate between public sector organizations and private sector organizations in how to deal with contractual work processes. The theoretical analysis has been carried out within classical and relational contract theory. The analysis shows that the empirical findings, to a great extend, can be explained through classical contract theory. It also gives us some ideas on what areas of the theory, especially relational contract theory that should be improved. Regarding the main research question, the conclusions indicate a need to establish a comprehensive approach to the contract process, to ensure a good balance between different partial processes. There also seem to be necessary to work on improvements on contract theory to increase the applicability of the theory, especially the relational contract theory.

"This book addresses political conflicts in Norway through an extended time span, from the late autocracy of the 18th century until the democratic challenges of today. The book holds eight articles focusing on historical phases which have been particularly influenced by social and political mobilization. Thus, the book traces an oppositional tradition across borders in time and space. Although the articles are based on limited studies, the authors write with ambition to include their research into this wider context.

In Norway, the Constitution of 1814 marks the shift from autocratic rule to early democracy. 18th century peasant riots may be interpreted as expressions of impotence of the common people, but also as an opportunity for action with the potential to influence the authorities. The 19th century peasant opposition shows the potential for change through parliamentary representation. Around 1850 the first attempts at worker's organizations were criminalized – around 1950, however, the Labour Party dominated Norwegian politics. These trending lines reflect an increasingly developed democracy. The political system is in principle opening for broad popular participation. However, democracy is still being challenged by opposition in ways and by means that occasionally raise concerns about the stability of our political culture.

The book is divided into three parts. Part I is dedicated to the age of late autocracy, part II provides insights into the 19th century democratization processes, while Part III includes articles dealing with opposition and confrontations in the last century, focusing the interwar period, the 1970s, and today's multicultural society.The book is aimed both at researchers, students and the general audience." - "Denne boka tar opp politiske konflikter i Norge gjennom et langt tidsspenn, fra det seine eneveldet til vår tids demokratiske utfordringer. De åtte kapitlene representerer punktnedslag i historiske faser som i særlig grad har vært preget av sosial og politisk mobilisering. Slik bidrar boka til å belyse en opposisjonell tradisjon.

Historikere er blitt kritisert for å fokusere ensidig på avgrensede perioder og hendelser, og være for lite opptatt av å spore linjer på tvers av grenser i tid og rom. Forfatterne av denne boka skriver med bakgrunn i avgrensede studier, men alltid med ambisjon om å sette sine forskningstema inn i en videre kontekst.

I Norge markerer Grunnloven av 1814 skiftet fra eneveldig styre til begynnende demokrati. 1700-tallets bondeopprør kan tolkes som uttrykk for allmuens avmakt, men også som handlingsrom med potensiale til å påvirke myndighetene. 1800-tallets bondeopposisjon viser mulighetene for å nå fram gjennom parlamentarisk opposisjon. Rundt 1850 ble de første forsøk på organisering av arbeidere kriminalisert – rundt 1950 dominerte Arbeiderpartiet norsk politikk. Dette er linjer som speiler et stadig mer utviklet demokrati. Det politiske systemet åpner i prinsippet for bred folkelig medvirkning. Men fortsatt blir demokratiet utfordret av opposisjon i ytringsformer som til tider vekker bekymring for stabiliteten i vår politiske kultur."

In her well-known song, 'Når himmelen faller ned' ('When the Sky Falls Down'), the Norwegian musician Anne Grete Preus described snow as 'celestial tipp-ex' and a mighty 'wonder'. But what exactly is it that snow corrects? And what gives snow its power?

Snow's Formulas: A Natural Phenomenon in Literature attempts to answer these and similar questions by discussing the motif of snow in the context of modernization processes marked by increasing instrumentalization and rationalization. Snow transforms landscapes and defies modernity's innovations; it simultaneously obscures and accentuates, and also enchants. This process can be described in different ways: as the sublime's breakthrough in a philosophical, aesthetic sense, or, in a poetological sense, as non-mimetic writing. This strategy plays out in language, and the objective of this study has been to investigate snow's rhetoricity and how literary depictions of snow can be in response to the challenges of modernity. The book includes readings of texts by H.C. Andersen, Olaf Bull, Hans Børli, Paul Celan, Alexander Kielland, Jonas Lie, Tor Ulven and Tarjei Vesaas, among others.

The relationship between snow and modernity is illustrated from a dual perspective. Emphasis is placed on the individual's position and self-perception within the process of modernization, as well as on the aesthetical problems that arise when writing about snow. Snow makes a white surface; it 'overwrites' the ground and encourages a non-mimetic poetry. Snow can be said to be an engine of modern aesthetics that does not take language's referential aspect for granted. - I sin kjente låt Når himmelen faller ned betegner Anne Grete Preus snø som «himmelsk korrekturlakk» og et mektig «under». Men hva er det egentlig som snø må korrigere, og i hva består dens makt?

Snøens formler: Et naturfenomen i litteraturen søker svar på slike spørsmål idet snømotivet diskuteres på bakgrunn av moderniseringsprosessen, kjennetegnet ved økende instrumentalisering og rasjonalisering. Snø forandrer landskapet og sier modernitetens nyttetenkning imot; den tildekker og aksentuerer samtidig og fortryller. Denne prosessen kan beskrives på forskjellige måter: som det sublimes gjennombrudd i filosofisk-estetisk henseende, eller, i poetologisk henseende, som en form for avrealisering. Denne strategien utspiller seg i språk, og formålet med denne studien er å granske snøens retorisitet og hvordan den litterære fremstillingen av snø svarer på modernitetens utfordringer. Boken inneholder lesninger av blant annet H.C. Andersen, Olaf Bull, Hans Børli, Paul Celan, Alexander Kielland, Jonas Lie, Tor Ulven og Tarjei Vesaas.

Forholdet mellom snø og modernitet belyses fra et dobbeltperspektiv. Søkelyset rettes på individets stilling og selvforståelse i moderniseringsprosessen, men også på estetiske spørsmål som reiser seg når det diktes om snø. Snøen lager en hvit flate, den «overskriver» jorden og spiller på denne måten en amimetisk poetikk i hendene. Snø kan sies å være en pådriver av en moderne estetisk posisjon som ikke tar språkets referensielle side for gitt.

"The premise of Elected Officials and Political Leaders is that every elected politician is a political leader. This anthology looks at political leadership in Norwegian local governments and explores how to understand this form of leadership. Passing resolutions is an important part of an elected official's job, and public discourse can suggest that such work is itself the essence of political leadership. This is a central concern in the book, which argues that political leadership also consists of grasping and understanding issues, setting agendas, proposing solutions and mobilizing support for them.

With this broad view of political leadership, the book is organized around four paradoxes associated with the political-administrative system in Norwegian municipal government: the conflict paradox, the administration paradox, the transparency paradox and the democracy paradox. The chapters describe and discuss these paradoxes, the tensions they are based on and how opposing interests can be balanced in a constructive way, both for the local public sector as a whole as well as the individual councils and councilors.

The book provides examples of how elected leaders can strengthen their political leadership, not least through a systematic comparison with Danish municipal governments. Important points in each chapter are also emphasized in interviews with political and administrative leaders who share their experiences with the authors. The book concludes with a discussion of how political leadership can be further developed and strengthened, both through changes in the institutional framework for Norwegian local governments and through dialogue and reflection within the individual municipal councils." - "Folkevalgt og politisk leder tar utgangspunkt i at enhver folkevalgt politiker er en politisk leder. Boken handler om politisk lederskap i norske kommuner, og den diskuterer hvordan vi kan forstå denne formen for lederskap. Å fatte beslutninger er en viktig del av folkevalgtes hverdag, og den offentlige debatten kan gi inntrykk av at dette er selve essensen i det politiske lederskapet. Boken problematiserer dette, og den argumenterer for at politisk lederskap også handler om å fange opp og forstå problemer, sette dagsorden, foreslå løsninger og skape oppslutning om disse.

Med dette brede perspektivet på politisk lederskap er boken organisert rundt fire paradokser knyttet til det politisk-administrative systemet i norske kommuner: konfliktparadokset, administrasjonsparadokset, åpenhetsparadokset og demokratiparadokset. I bokens kapitler diskuteres innholdet i disse paradoksene, hvilke spenninger som ligger til grunn for dem, og hvordan motstridende hensyn kan balanseres på en konstruktiv måte, både for norsk kommunesektor som helhet, for det enkelte kommunestyret og for den enkelte folkevalgte.

Boken gir eksempler på hvordan folkevalgte kan styrke sitt politiske lederskap, ikke minst basert på bokens systematiske sammenlikninger med danske kommuner. Viktige poeng i hvert kapittel blir også understreket i intervjuer med en kommunepolitiker eller en kommunedirektør som deler sine erfaringer med oss. Boken avsluttes med en diskusjon av hvordan det politiske lederskapet kan utvikles og styrkes, både gjennom endringer i rammebetingelsene for norske kommuner og gjennom diskusjoner og refleksjoner i det enkelte kommunestyret."

"In recent years, organizations and authorities in Norway have put a critical spotlight on parenting practices among non-Western immigrants, based on a concern for young people's autonomy and self-determination. The purpose of this book – which deals with parenting and social control in immigrant families from Pakistan, Somalia and Sri Lanka – is to shed light on on this collision between different family norms and practices from different perspectives, and thus help to understand why family relations and social control have become a topic of contention in today's multicultural Norway. The books starting point is a sociological perspective on cultural differences, social control and change in a migration context.
A key point of focus in the empirical analyzes are parental restrictions in young people's social life. How common are such restrictions within different groups? What significance do factors such as religiosity and socio-economic resources play in the exercise of social control? And what are the consequences for children's social participation, mental health and well-being? One aim is to contribute systematic quantitative knowledge on such issues.
At the same time, the book contributes to a more qualitative understanding of people's experiences and actions. How do parents from countries like Pakistan, Somalia and Sri Lanka experience raising children and young people in Norway? What concerns have they had regarding their children's encounters with various parts of Norwegian society? And how do young people navigate between different expectations and demands from the families and communities on the one hand and among their peers and the larger society on the other? We focus on the question of social change. Is the organization of family relationships and the exercise of social control within immigrant populations characterized by continuity or change? And what kind of mechanisms drive such changes forward?
The book, which is published as part of the Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study in Norway, will illuminate these questions using quantitative data from a comprehensive survey of 16-17 year olds in Oslo and Akershus, as well as qualitative interviews – individually and in groups – with parents, adolescents and young adults with immigrant backgrounds as well as people in public help services and NGOs.
" - "Denne boka tar for seg foreldreskap og sosial kontroll i innvandrede familier fra Pakistan, Somalia og Sri Lanka. Hensikten er å belyse møtet mellom ulike familie- og oppdragelsesidealer fra flere sider, og slik bidra til å forstå hvorfor dette har blitt et hett stridstema i dagens flerkulturelle Norge. Boka tar utgangspunkt i et sosiologisk perspektiv på kulturforskjeller, sosial kontroll og endring i en migrasjonskontekst.

Et siktemål er å bidra med systematisk kvantitativ kunnskap. Hvor utbredt er ulike typer strenge foreldrerestriksjoner i unges sosiale liv? Hvilken betydning spiller faktorer som religiøsitet, sosioøkonomiske ressurser og familiens botid i Norge for utøvelsen av sosial kontroll? Og hvilke konsekvenser har slike foreldrerestriksjoner for barnas sosiale deltakelse, psykiske helse og trivsel?

Et annet siktemål er å bidra til en mer kvalitativ forståelse for hvorfor folk handler som de gjør. Hvordan opplever foreldre det å skulle oppdra barn og ungdom i det som for mange oppleves som et fremmed land? Hvilke bekymringer har de knyttet til ungdommenes møter med det norske samfunnet? Og hvordan navigerer ungdom mellom ulike forventninger og krav fra familie og storsamfunn?

Sosial endring står sentralt. Er familierelasjoner og utøvelse av sosial kontroll innad i innvandrerbefolkningen preget av kontinuitet eller endring? Hva slags mekanismer kan eventuelt bidra til å drive endringer framover? Og i forlengelsen av dette – hvordan kan forskning og offentlig debatt bidra på en konstruktivt måte?

Disse spørsmålene vil belyses ved hjelp av kvantitative data fra en omfattende spørreundersøkelse blant 16–17-åringer i Oslo og Akershus, samt kvalitative intervjuer – individuelle og i grupper – med foreldre, ungdom og unge voksne i de tre gruppene, samt med personer i organisasjoner, hjelpeapparat og førstelinjetjeneste."