Suchergebnisse

Mención Especial en Investigación Arquitectónica en el XXV Premio de Arquitectura convocado por el Colegio Oficial de Arquitectos de Huelva ; [SPA] La clase proletaria en España habría de recorrer un largo y tedioso trayecto de algunas décadas hasta la definitiva consecución del derecho a unas vacaciones anuales retribuidas. Esta demanda histórica será satisfecha por vez primera en la Constitución Republicana del año 1931, y consolidada algunos años después con la promulgación del Fuero del Trabajo de 1938, lo que llevará al régimen franquista a afrontar el reto de idear modelos para la organización del ocio y las vacaciones de los trabajadores del país. Con la mirada puesta en aquellas experiencias de problemática similar llevadas a cabo previamente por otros regímenes totalitarios en Italia, Alemania o Portugal, la conocida como Obra Sindical de Educación y Descanso instauraría en España una compleja red de albergues y residencias de veraneo con localizaciones diversas a lo largo y ancho de la geografía del país, resultando significativo el número de instalaciones de este tipo emplazadas en el ámbito litoral. El rotundo éxito que entre las masas trabajadoras cosechase la labor desempeñada por este organismo estatal durante las dos primeras décadas del régimen franquista, propiciaría el escenario idóneo para la implementación de un novedoso modelo para la organización, como sin duda el control, del descanso y el ocio estival de los productores españoles: las ciudades de vacaciones de Educación y Descanso. Promovidas durante el tramo intermedio de la década de los años cincuenta, la Obra Sindical de Educación y Descanso construiría en España hasta tres ciudades de vacaciones para trabajadores, ejecutadas ex nihilo como asentamientos autosuficientes estratégicamente localizados en privilegiadas parcelas a pie de playa, y destinadas no sólo a garantizar el descanso de sus residentes durante el asueto estival, sino también a un adoctrinamiento político que, de manera soterrada, se pondría en práctica en el distendido ambiente que estas instalaciones vacacionales ofrecerían. El modelo ciudad de vacaciones de Educación y Descanso, objeto de un profundo estudio en este trabajo, encuentra su punto de partida en la playa Larga de Tarragona, extendiéndose en pocos años a sendas parcelas en Marbella y Perlora, convirtiéndose así en una sutil avanzadilla de lo que la década siguiente depararía al litoral español. El presente trabajo se propone dar respuesta a tres interrogantes surgidos en torno a este novedoso modelo de organización y control del descanso proletario en España. El primero de ellos aborda la especificidad que, como consecuencia de sus singulares circunstancias, se le presume a este tipo de asentamientos vacacionales. Para ello, se ha elaborado un análisis comparativo entre las ciudades de vacaciones de Educación y Descanso y otros modelos alternativos para la organización de las masas trabajadoras en el territorio que, contemporáneamente, se estarían desarrollando en España tanto en las periferias de la ciudad industrial tradicional, como en el ámbito rural como resultado del proceso de urbanización al que el Instituto Nacional de Colonización sometería al campo español. El segundo de los interrogantes planteados en este trabajo aflora tras la elaboración del estado del conocimiento sobre la materia, y versa sobre la posible continuidad del modelo en el tiempo. Esta investigación pone en entredicho la literatura especializada en las ciudades de vacaciones de Educación y Descanso, que sitúa dicho modelo como un hecho puntual y aislado de la década de los cincuenta, negando de forma precipitada la existencia de experiencias adicionales promovidas durante la etapa final del régimen franquista. El tercer y último interrogante que se plantea en este trabajo se centra en la revisión del modelo, tratando de identificar la probable influencia que sobre el mismo ejerciera el cambio de contexto experimentado con la llegada de la década de los años sesenta, cuando el fenómeno turístico de masas, tanto nacional como internacional, irrumpiría definitivamente en las casi inalteradas costas de nuestro país. Como colofón de esta investigación se han planteado una serie de conclusiones como resolución de las hipótesis de partida formuladas en el trabajo. La identificación de algunos parámetros inherentes a las tres ciudades de vacaciones ejecutadas por Educación y Descanso en la década de los años cincuenta, como la especificidad de su programa o su especial posicionamiento respecto al lugar y el paisaje, ha resultado determinante a la hora de demostrar la singularidad de estos conjuntos respecto de otros modelos analizados para la organización de las clases obreras en el territorio. Así mismo, como aportación al conocimiento sobre la temática, se han documentado hasta dos nuevos proyectos de ciudades de vacaciones promovidos por Educación y Descanso en la segunda mitad de los años sesenta, en Guardamar del Segura (Alicante) y en Punta Umbría (Huelva), ignoradas hasta hoy por la bibliografía específica. A pesar de no haber sido ejecutadas, estas propuestas han permitido constatar las intenciones de la Obra Sindical de dar continuidad a su novedoso modelo de organización y control del descanso de los trabajadores durante la etapa final del régimen franquista, un periodo en el que, sin embargo, asistiremos a la pérdida de la hegemonía sobre las costas españolas de la institución estatal Educación y Descanso en beneficio de las arrolladoras promociones de apartamentos y hoteles de promoción privada que ocuparán a partir de entonces las privilegiadas posiciones a pie de playa. Este contexto obligará a introducir variaciones sustanciales sobre el modelo objeto de este trabajo ante la ineludible necesidad de competir con otras actuaciones que en el orden privado se comenzarían a ejecutar en el litoral español. Situado este episodio de las ciudades de vacaciones de Educación y Descanso dentro del debate sobre la gestación del fenómeno turismo de masas en España, se abren ahora nuevos interrogantes que conducen a futuras líneas de trabajo, como desentrañar las causas reales que llevaron a la Obra Sindical al abandono prematuro de un modelo aparentemente exitoso, o identificar las posibles reminiscencias del mismo sobre otras propuestas de organización del ocio turístico en el territorio implementadas en las décadas posteriores, como los denominados resorts turísticos que tan en boga estuvieron en España a partir de los años noventa. ; [ENG] The proletarian class in Spain had to go through a long and tedious journey of some decades until the final attainment of the right to a paid annual vacation. This historical demand was fulfilled in the Republican Constitution of 1931 and consolidated some years later with the enactment of the Jurisdiction of Labour in 1938. It made the Franco's regime face the challenge of devising models for the organization of leisure and vacation of workers. With an eye towards those similar experiences carried out previously by other totalitarian regimes in Italy, Germany or Portugal, the so-called Trade Union Work of Education and Rest established a complex network of hostels and summer residences with different locations throughout Spain, being significant the number of this kind of facilities located in the coastal area. The clear success that the labour of this State institution had among the working class in the first two decades of Franco's regime favoured the perfect setting for the implementation of a new model for the organization, as well as the control, of Spanish producers' rest and summer leisure: holiday cities of education and rest. Promoted during the middle part of the 1950s, the Trade Union Work of Education and Rest built three holiday cities for workers in Spain. They were performed ex nihilo as self-sufficient settlements, strategically located in privileged plots at the beach and intended not only to guarantee the rest of its residents during the summer holidays, but also to a political indoctrination which would be covertly implemented in the relaxed atmosphere that these holiday facilities offered. The model of holiday city of education and rest, object of a deep study in this research, has its starting point at Larga beach, in Tarragona, extending itself in a few years to two plots in Marbella and Perlora. Therefore, it became a subtle advance of what the next decade would bring to the Spanish coast. The present study intends to answer three questions about this new model of organization and control of proletarian rest in Spain. The first question is about the specificity that, as a consequence of its unique circumstances, this kind of holiday settlements is assumed to have. To do this, a comparative analysis has been carried out among holiday cities of Education and Rest and other alternative models for organization of working masses in the territory that at the same time would be developing in Spain, not only in the surroundings of the traditional industrial city, but also in the rural area. This is the result of the urbanization process that the National Institute of Colonization would subject to Spanish countryside. The second question, which is raised in this study after the development of the state of knowledge on the subject, deals with the possible continuity of the model over time. This research calls into question the specialized literature in the holiday cities of Education and Rest. This literature finds this model as a punctual and isolated fact from the fifties, hastily denying the existence of additional experiences promoted during the final stage of Franco's regime. The third and final question of this study focuses on the review of the model, trying to identify the probable influence that the change of context experienced with the arrival of the sixties had on it, when mass tourism phenomenon, both national and international, would definitely break into the almost unchanged coasts of our country. As a culmination of this research, some conclusions have been proposed as a resolution of the starting hypotheses formulated in the study. The identification of some parameters inherent in the three holiday cities performed by Education and Rest in the fifties, such as the specificity of its program or its special positioning regarding place and landscape, has proved to be decisive to demonstrate the uniqueness of these sets in relation to other models analyzed for the organization of working classes in the territory. Likewise, as a contribution to knowledge on the subject, two new projects of holiday cities promoted by Education and Rest have been documented in the second half of the sixties, in Guardamar del Segura (Alicante) and in Punta Umbría (Huelva), being ignored until today by specific bibliography. Despite not having been performed, these proposals have revealed the intentions of the Trade Union Work to continue its innovative model of organization and control of workers' rest during the final stage of Franco's regime. However, there will be a loss of hegemony of the state institution Education and Rest over Spanish coasts for the benefit of overwhelming promotions of apartments and hotels of private promotion which will be on privileged positions at the beach from then on. This context will force the introduction of substantial variations on the model being studied in this work because of the unavoidable need to compete with other performances which would privately start to be carried out in Spanish coast. Having placed this episode of holiday cities of Education and Rest within the debate on the gestation of the mass tourism phenomenon in Spain, there are some new questions leading to future lines of study, such as finding the real causes that made the Trade Union Work leave prematurely a model apparently successful or finding its possible reminiscences on other proposals for organizing tourist leisure in the territory being implemented in subsequent decades. An example of this aspect would be the so-called tourist resorts which were so popular in Spain since the 1990s. ; Escuela Internacional de Doctorado de la Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena ; Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena ; Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Arquitectura y Tecnología de la Edificación

This report presents a brief discussion of indigenous peoples' development as evidenced in a select number of case studies about World Bank financed projects that had a positive impact on indigenous peoples' communities. The main objective of this study is to identify and document good practices and lessons learned that can be shared with World Bank staff, borrower governments, and Indigenous Peoples' organizations to help improve the design and implementation of projects that trigger the World Bank's Operational Policy on Indigenous Peoples and/or are primarily oriented toward the sustainable development of indigenous peoples. World Bank activities with regard to indigenous peoples have been primarily focused on applying OP 4.10 to ensure that indigenous peoples receive social and economic benefits that are culturally appropriate and gender and age inclusive, and to mitigate possible adverse impacts associated with Bank-financed projects. The policy itself encourages Bank engagement and financial support for a variety of initiatives that go beyond projects, engaging in broader dimensions of country relationships that improve the circumstances of indigenous peoples. As a result, the Bank increasingly addresses issues concerning indigenous peoples through: (1) country economic and sector work/analysis, (2) dialogue and technical assistance, and (3) capacity-building. This report is an initial attempt to document good practices and lessons learned through results with regard to indigenous peoples' development. It is intended to support the ongoing engagement process with indigenous peoples and to inform the process of finding better ways to promote sustainable development that will positively affect indigenous communities.

"To this day I feel humiliation for what was done to me… The time I spent in Abu Ghraib — it ended my life. I'm only half a human now." That's what Abu Ghraib survivor Talib al-Majli had to say about the 16 months he spent at that notorious prison in Iraq after being captured and detained by American troops on October 31, 2003. In the wake of his release, al-Majli has continued to suffer a myriad of difficulties, including an inability to hold a job thanks to physical and mental-health deficits and a family life that remains in shambles.He was never even charged with a crime — not exactly surprising, given the Red Cross's estimate that 70% to 90% of those arrested and detained in Iraq after the 2003 American invasion of that country were guilty of nothing. But like other survivors, his time at Abu Ghraib continues to haunt him, even though, nearly 20 years later in America, the lack of justice and accountability for war crimes at that prison has been relegated to the distant past and is considered a long-closed chapter in this country's War on Terror.The Abu Ghraib "Scandal"On April 28th, 2004, CBS News's 60 Minutes aired a segment about Abu Ghraib prison, revealing for the first time photos of the kinds of torture that had happened there. Some of those now-infamous pictures included a black-hooded prisoner being made to stand on a box, his arms outstretched and electrical wires attached to his hands; naked prisoners piled on top of each other in a pyramid-like structure; and a prisoner in a jumpsuit on his knees being threatened with a dog. In addition to those disturbing images, several photos included American military personnel grinning or posing with thumbs-up signs, indications that they seemed to be taking pleasure in the humiliation and torture of those Iraqi prisoners and that the photos were meant to be seen.Once those pictures were exposed, there was widespread outrage across the globe in what became known as the Abu Ghraib scandal. However, that word "scandal" still puts the focus on those photos rather than on the violence the victims suffered or the fact that, two decades later, there has been zero accountability when it comes to the government officials who sanctioned an atmosphere ripe for torture.Thanks to the existence of the Federal Tort Claims Act, all claims against the federal government, when it came to Abu Ghraib, were dismissed. Nor did the government provide any compensation or redress to the Abu Ghraib survivors, even after, in 2022, the Pentagon released a plan to minimize harm to civilians in U.S. military operations. However, there is a civil suit filed in 2008 — Al Shimari v. CACI — brought on behalf of three plaintiffs against military contractor CACI's role in torture at Abu Ghraib. Though CACI tried 20 times to have the case dismissed, the trial — the first to address the abuse of Abu Ghraib detainees — finally began in mid-April in the Eastern District Court of Virginia. If the plaintiffs succeed with a ruling in their favor, it will be a welcome step toward some semblance of justice. However, for other survivors of Abu Ghraib, any prospect of justice remains unlikely at best.The Road to Abu Ghraib"My impression is that what has been charged thus far is abuse, which I believe technically is different from torture… And therefore, I'm not going to address the 'torture' word." So said Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld at a press conference in 2004. He failed, of course, to even mention that he and other members of President George W. Bush's administration had gone to great lengths not only to sanction brutal torture techniques in their "Global War on Terror," but to dramatically raise the threshold for what might even be considered torture.As Vian Bakir argued in her book Torture, Intelligence and Sousveillance in the War on Terror: Agenda-Building Struggles, his comments were part of a three-pronged Bush administration strategy to reframe the abuses depicted in those photos, including providing "evidence" of the supposed legality of the basic interrogation techniques, framing such abuses as isolated rather than systemic events, and doing their best to destroy visual evidence of torture altogether.Although top Bush officials claimed to know nothing about what happened at Abu Ghraib, the war on terror they launched was built to thoroughly dehumanize and deny any rights to those detained. As a 2004 Human Rights Watch report, "The Road to Abu Ghraib," noted, a pattern of abuse globally resulted not from the actions of individual soldiers, but from administration policies that circumvented the law, deployed distinctly torture-like methods of interrogation to "soften up" detainees, and took a "see no evil, hear no evil," approach to any allegations of prisoner abuse.In fact, the Bush administration actively sought out legal opinions about how to exclude war-on-terror prisoners from any legal framework whatsoever. A memorandum from Attorney General Alberto Gonzales to President Bush argued that the Geneva Conventions simply didn't apply to members of the terror group al-Qaeda or the Afghan Taliban. Regarding what would constitute torture, an infamous memo, drafted by Office of Legal Counsel attorney John Yoo, argued that "physical pain amounting to torture must be equivalent in intensity to the pain accompanying serious physical injury, such as organ failure, impairment of bodily function, or even death." Even after the Abu Ghraib photos became public, Rumsfeld and other Bush administration officials never relented when it came to their supposed inapplicability. As Rumsfeld put it in a television interview, they "did not apply precisely" in Iraq.In January 2004, Major General Anthony Taguba was appointed to conduct an Army investigation into the military unit, the 800th Military Police Brigade, which ran Abu Ghraib, where abuses had been reported from October through December 2003. His report was unequivocal about the systematic nature of torture there: "Between October and December 2003, at the Abu Ghraib Confinement Facility (BCCF), numerous incidents of sadistic, blatant, and wanton criminal abuses were inflicted on several detainees. This systemic and illegal abuse of detainees was intentionally perpetrated by several members of the military police guard force (372nd Military Police Company, 320th Military Police Battalion, 800th MP Brigade), in Tier (section) 1-A of the Abu Ghraib Prison."Sadly, the Taguba report was neither the first nor the last to document abuse and torture at Abu Ghraib. Moreover, prior to its release, the International Committee of the Red Cross had issued multiple warnings that such abuse was occurring at Abu Ghraib and elsewhere.Simulating AtonementOnce the pictures were revealed, President Bush and other members of his administration were quick to condemn the violence at the prison. Within a week, Bush had assured King Abdullah of Jordan, who was visiting the White House, that he was sorry about what those Iraqi prisoners had endured and "equally sorry that people who've been seeing those pictures didn't understand the true nature and heart of America."As scholar Ryan Shepard pointed out, Bush's behavior was a classic case of "simulated atonement," aimed at offering an "appearance of genuine confession" while avoiding any real responsibility for what happened. He analyzed four instances in which the president offered an "apologia" for what happened — two interviews with Alhurra and Al Arabiya television on May 5, 2004, and two appearances with the King of Jordan the next day.In each case, the president also responsible for the setting up of an offshore prison of injustice on occupied Cuban land in Guantánamo Bay in 2002 managed to shift the blame in classic fashion, suggesting that the torture had not been systematic and that the fault for it lay with a few low-level people. He also denied that he knew anything about torture at Abu Ghraib prior to the release of the photos and tried to restore the image of America by drawing a comparison to what the regime of Iraqi autocrat Saddam Hussein had done prior to the American invasion.In his interview with Alhurra, for example, he claimed that the U.S. response to Abu Ghraib — investigations and justice — would be unlike anything Saddam Hussein had done. Sadly enough, however, the American takeover of that prison and the torture that occurred there was anything but a break from Hussein's reign. In the context of such a faux apology, however, Bush apparently assumed that Iraqis could be easily swayed on that point, regardless of the violence they had endured at American hands; that they would, in fact, as Ryan Shepard put it, "accept the truth-seeking, freedom-loving American occupation as vastly superior to the previous regime."True accountability for Abu Ghraib? Not a chance. But revisiting Bush's apologia so many years later is a vivid reminder that he and his top officials never had the slightest intention of truly addressing those acts of torture as systemic to America's war on terror, especially because he was directly implicated in them.Weapons of American ImperialismOn March 19th, 2003, President Bush gave an address from the Oval Office to his "fellow citizens." He opened by saying that "American and coalition forces are in the early stages of military operations to disarm Iraq, to free its people and to defend the world from grave danger." The liberated people of Iraq, he said, would "witness the honorable and decent spirit of the American military."There was, of course, nothing about his invasion of Iraq that was honorable or decent. It was an illegally waged war for which Bush and his administration had spent months building support. In his State of the Union address in 2002, in fact, the president had referred to Iraq as part of an "axis of evil" and a country that "continues to flaunt its hostility toward America and to support terror." Later that year, he began to claim that Saddam's regime also had weapons of mass destruction. (It didn't and he knew it.) If that wasn't enough to establish the threat Iraq supposedly posed, in January 2003, Vice President Dick Cheney claimed that it "aids and protects terrorists, including members of al-Qaeda."Days after Cheney made those claims, Secretary of State Colin Powell falsely asserted to members of the U.N. Security Council that Saddam Hussein had chemical weapons, had used them before, and would not hesitate to use them again. He mentioned the phrase "weapons of mass destruction" 17 times in his speech, leaving no room to mistake the urgency of his message. Similarly, President Bush insisted the U.S. had "no ambition in Iraq, except to remove a threat and restore control of that country to its own people."The false pretenses under which the U.S. waged war on Iraq are a reminder that the war on terror was never truly about curbing a threat, but about expanding American imperial power globally.When the United States took over that prison, they replaced Saddam Hussein's portrait with a sign that said, "America is the friend of all Iraqis." To befriend the U.S. in the context of Abu Ghraib, would, of course, have involved a sort of coerced amnesia.In his essay "Abu Ghraib and its Shadow Archives," Macquarie University professor Joseph Pugliese makes this connection, writing that "the Abu Ghraib photographs compel the viewer to bear testimony to the deployment and enactment of absolute U.S. imperial power on the bodies of the Arab prisoners through the organizing principles of white supremacist aesthetics that intertwine violence and sexuality with Orientalist spectacle."As a project of American post-9/11 empire building, Abu Ghraib and the torture of prisoners there should be viewed through the lens of what I call carceral imperialism — an extension of the American carceral state beyond its borders in the service of domination and hegemony. (The Alliance for Global Justice refers to a phenomenon related to the one I'm discussing as "prison imperialism.") The distinction I draw is based on my focus on the war on terror and how the prison became a tool through which that war was being fought. In the case of Abu Ghraib, the capture, detention, and torture through which Iraqis were contained and subdued was a primary strategy of the U.S. colonization of Iraq and was used as a way to transform detained Iraqis into a visible threat that would legitimize the U.S. presence there. (Bagram prison in Afghanistan was another example of carceral imperialism.)Beyond Spectacle and Towards JusticeWhat made the torture at Abu Ghraib possible to begin with? While there were, of course, several factors, it's important to consider one above all: the way the American war not on, but of terror rendered Iraqi bodies so utterly disposable.One way of viewing this dehumanization is through philosopher Giorgio Agamben's Homo Sacer, which defines a relationship between power and two forms of life: zoe and bios. Zoe refers to an individual who is recognized as fully human with a political and social life, while bios refers to physical life alone. Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib were reduced to bios, or bare life, while being stripped of all rights and protections, which left them vulnerable to uninhibited and unaccountable violence and horrifying torture.Twenty years later, those unforgettable images of torture at Abu Ghraib serve as a continuous reminder of the nature of American brutality in that Global War on Terror that has not ended. They continue to haunt me — and other Muslims and Arabs — 20 years later. They will undoubtedly be seared in my memory for life.Whether or not justice prevails in some way for Abu Ghraib's survivors, as witnesses – even distant ones — to what transpired at that prison, our job should still be to search for the stories behind the hoods, the bars, and the indescribable acts of torture that took place there. It's crucial, even so many years later, to ensure that those who endured such horrific violence at American hands are not forgotten. Otherwise, our gaze will become one more weapon of torture — extending the life of the horrific acts in those images and ensuring that the humiliation of those War on Terror prisoners will continue to be a passing spectacle for our consumption.Two decades after those photos were released, what's crucial about the unbearable violence and horror they capture is the choice they still force viewers to make — whether to become just another bystander to the violence and horror this country delivered under the label of the War on Terror or to take in the torture and demand justice for the survivors.This piece has been republished with permission from TomDispatch.

ÖZET:Hayvancılık, Çad'ın gelişmekte olan bir ülke olarak önemli bir ekonomik bileşenidir. Petrol sektöründen sonra genel olarak ülkenin GSYİH'sini paylaşmaktadır. Önemine rağmen, bu sektör bir takım kısıtlamalarla karşı karşıya. Bu kısıtlamaları araştırmak için, bu çalışma hayvancılık politikasını etkileyen faktörler araştırıldı. Çad'daki hayvancılık sektöründeki iyileşmenin, Hükümet tarafından halihazırda ele alınan politika kısıtlamalarından etkilendiği varsayılmaktadır. Bu çalışmanın belirli bir araştırma amacı Çad'da hayvancılık politikasının uygulamadaki zayıf yönlerini ve güçlü yönlerini analiz etmektir; hayvancılık politikası uygulamasını incelemenin yanı sıra. Bu araştırmada kullanılan yöntem hem niteliksel hem de nicelikseldir ve birincil ve ikincil olmak üzere iki veri kaynağına dayanır. Hayvancılık politikasının uygulanmasına ilişkin temel veriler, hayvancılık politikasının uygulanmasını etkileyen parametreleri belirlemek için hayvancılık ve paydaşlık bakanlığında çalışan kamu görevlilerine yönelik anketler kullanılarak bir anket kullanılarak toplanmıştır.Anket sonuçları, hem nicel hem de nitel analiz yöntemleri kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Çalışma, nicel betimsel analizin sonucuna dayandı. İstatistikler, Sosyal Bilimler için İstatistik Paketi (SPSS) programı ile yürütülen analiz sonrası demografik özelliklerin ve çalışma faktörlerinin bir özetini ve açıklamasını verir. Açık uçlu soruların sonucu nitel analizde tartışılmış ve cevaplayıcılardan her birinin en önemli üçünü seçmelerini istemek için ek sorular eklenmiştir. nitel analiz. Analizlerin sonuçları, araştırmanın nitel kısmından gelen yanıtlar, ilgili çalışmaların sonuçları ve araştırma bulgularına genel bir bakış açısı sağlamak için Çad Hayvancılık Dairesi'nden gelen hayvancılık istatistik verileriyle daha da doğrulanmıştır. Ortalama ve frekans dağılımı gibi tanımlayıcı istatistikler de kullanılmıştır.Bu araştırmanın ana bulguları, hayvancılık geliştirme politikasının dört faktörden etkilendiğini göstermiştir: hayvancılık verimlilik sistemleri; ekonomik çevre; kamu yönetimi ve yönetişim; ve insan kaynakları geliştirme politikasının yönetimi. Çalışmanın sonuçları, hayvancılık üretim sistemindeki faktörler arasında, hayvancılık politikasına etkileri bakımından, geniş üreme sistemleri bulunduğunu; hayvan sağlığı sorunları; ve veteriner eczanesi. Ekonomik ortamda, faktörler mezbaha modernizasyonunun eksikliğidir; hayvan pazarı sistemlerinin modernizasyonunun eksikliği; hayvan ticareti pazarlama sistemlerinin eksikliği; ve önceliklendirme hayvancılık bütçesi eksikliği. Kamu yönetiminde ve yönetişimde tanımlanan faktörler, önceliklendirme yapan hayvancılık politikasının eksikliğidir; uygunsuz proje yönetimi; stratejik yönetim kapasitesi eksikliği; ve kapasite geliştirme yönetiminin eksikliği. İnsan kaynaklarının geliştirilmesi ve politikasının yönetiminde, etkileyici faktörler, esas sistem ilkelerinin uygulanmasının eksikliğidir; yöneticilerin değerlendirilmemesi; ve eğitim ve uzatma eksikliği.Öneriler, proje yönetimini geliştirmek için politika oluşturma ve uygulamada yer alan kurumlar arasındaki işbirliğini güçlendirmek amacıyla dört faktör etrafında sunulmuştur; Hayvancılık politikasını, ekonomik perspektifi içeren kapsamlı bir yaklaşım gerektiren karmaşık bir sorun olarak ele almak; Gelişen bir sistem olarak hayvancılık politikası vizyonunu modernize etmek. Bu tavsiyeler, hayvancılık politikasının daha fazla uygulanmasını ilgilendirmekte ve merkezi hükümetin ülke genelinde izlenmesi mümkün olan hayvancılık politikasındaki stratejisine atıfta bulunmaktadır. Ancak, bu önerilerin hepsi çok önemlidir, ancak bazıları kısa, orta ve uzun vadede yapılmalıdır.İÇİNDEKİLERSayfa numarası.TABLO LİSTESİXŞEKİL LİSTESİXIKISALTMA LİSTESİXII1. ÇALIŞMA ARKA PLANI11.1 Giriş 11.2 Araştırma Sorunu Beyanı 41.3 Çalışmanın Amacı 61.4 Araştırma Amaçı 71.5 Araştırma Soruları 71.6 Araştırma Hipotezi 81.7 Araştırma Tasarımı ve Metodolojisi 81.8 Çalışmanın Önemi 9 1.9 Tez Bölümlerinin Anahatları 92. LITERATÜR TARAMASI, POLİTİKA UYGULAMASI VE KAVRAMSAL ÇERÇEVE 112.1 Giriş 112.2 Politika Tanımları 122.3 POLİTİKA UYGULAMASI 142.3.1 Açıklayıcı Modeller 162.3.2 Açıklayıcı Modellerin Uygulanması 162.3.3 Reçeteli Modeller 172.3.3.1 Reçete Modellerinin Uygulanması 182.3.4 Rasyonel Yaklaşım 222.3.5 Politik yaklaşım 242.3.6 Uygulama teorisi: Sistem Modeli 252.3.7 AŞAĞIDAN YUKARIYA VE YUKARIDAN AŞAĞIYA YAKLAŞIMLAR 272.3.7.1 Yukarıdan Aşağıya Yaklaşım 282.3.7.2 Aşağıdan Yukarıya Yaklaşım 282.3.7.3 Aşağıdan Yukarıya ve Yukarıdan Aşağıya Yaklaşımların Sentezi 292.3.8 BAŞARILI VE BAŞARISIZ UYGULAMA NEDİR?342.4 KAVRAMSAL ÇERÇEVE: HAYVANCILIK UYGULAMASININ POLİTİKASI 362.4.1 POLİTİKA UYGULAMASINDAN ETKİLEYEN FAKTÖRLER 362.5 HAYVANCILIK POLİTİKASININ UYGULAMASINI ETKİLEYEN FAKTÖRLER 422.5.1 Hayvancılık Verimlilik Sistemleri 422.5.1.1 Geniş Kapsamlı Islah Sistemi 422.5.1.2 Hayvan Sağlığı Sorunları 432.5.1.3 Veteriner Eczacılığı 432.5.2 Ekonomik Çevre 442.5.2.1 Hayvancılık Pazarlama Sistemleri 442.5.2.2 Hayvancılık Pazar Sistemleri 442.5.2.3 Olumlu Tedbir Eksikliği 452.5.3 Kamu Yönetimi ve Yönetişim 452.5.3.1 Politika Yönetimi 452.5.3.2 Kamu Yönetimi 472.5.4 İnsan Kaynakları Geliştirme Yönetimi 482.5.4.1 Eğitim ve yazışmalı492.5.4.2 Araştırma Hizmetleri 492.5.5 Hayvancılık Gelişme Planlarının Uygulanması 502.5.6 Stratejik Planlama için Devlet Koordinasyonu 522.5.7 Uygulayıcıların Politikaya Yönelik Tutumları 542.5.8 Hayvancılık Planlama ve Bilgi Hizmetleri Livestock 562.5.8.1 Hayvancılık Teknolojisinin Sağlanması 572.6 KAVRAMSAL ÇERÇEVE 572.6.1 KAVRAMSAL ÇERÇEVE ELEMANLARI 582.6.1.1 Politika İçeriği 582.6.1.2 Uygulama İçeriği 592.6.1.3 Uygulayıcıların Politikaya Taahhüdü 602.6.1.4 Politika Uygulama Kapasitesi 612.6.1.5 Uygulama İçin Müşterilere ve Koalisyonlara Destek 622.6.2 Kavramsal Çerçeve 652.7 ÖZET VE SONUÇ 663. ÇAD'IN SOSYO EKONOMİK ORTAMINA GENEL BAKIŞ VE LIVESTOCK POLİTİKA SİSTEMİ 683.1 Giriş 683.2 Ülke Profili 683.2.1 Kolonizasyon ve Bağımsız 693.2.2 Yönetim Seviyesi 703.2.3 Devlet ve Ssiyasi Durum 713.2.4 Doğal Kısıtlamalar 713.3.1 Sosyo-demografik ve Ekonomik Özellikle 723.3.2 Sosyoekonomik Kısıtlamalara Genel Bakış 733.3.3 Siyasi Kısıtlamalar 773.3.4 Çad'da Hayvancılık Sektörü Arka Planı 793.5 PASTORAL KALKINMA BAKANLIĞI ORGANİZASYONU ÇAD VE HAYVAN ÜRETİMİ 813.5.1 Hayvancılıkta Kurumsal Politika Çerçevesi 823.5.2. Hayvancılık Kurumsal Bağlantıları ve Ortaklığı 833.5.3 Hayvancılık Kuruluş Kuruluşları 833.5.4 Özel Sektör Kuruluşları 843.5.5 Sivil Toplum Kuruluşları 853.6 ENDÜSTRİYELLEŞME VE ÜRÜNÜN SINIRLARI İŞLEME 853.6.1 Mezbahaneler ve Kesim Alanları 863.6.2 İşlenmiş Ürün Faaliyetleri 863.6.3 Süt İşleme Üniteleri 883.6.4 Dönüşüm Birimleri 883.6.5 İşlenmiş Ürün Çeşitleri 883.7 ÖZET VE SONUÇ 894. METODOLOJİ METHODOLOGY 904.1 Giriş 904.2 Çalışmanın amacı 904.3 ARAŞTIRMA TASARIMI VE ANALİTİK MODELİ 914.3.1 Araştırma Tasarımı ve Metodoloji 914.4 Nüfus 944.5 Örnek 944.6 Anket Aracı 954.7 Veri Toplama 964.7.1 Pilot Testi 964.7.2 Gerçek Anket/Veri Toplama 974.8 Analiz 974.9 ÖZET VE SONUÇ 985. ÇALIŞMA VERİLERİNİN TOPLANMASI ANALİZİ 995.1 Giriş 995.2 Numunenin Demografik Profili 995.3 Çalışma Faktörleri 1005.3.1 Hayvancılık Verimlilik Sistemi Faktörleri 1015.3.2 Ekonomik Çevre Faktörleri 1025.3.3 Kamu Yönetimi ve Yönetişim 1035.3.4 İnsan Kaynakları Geliştirme ve Politika Yönetimi 1045.3.5 En Önemli Güçlü Noktalar ve Zayıf Noktalar 1065.3.5.1 Hayvancılık Gelişme Planlarının Uygulanmasının Güçlü ve Zayıf Noktaları 1065.3.5.2 Hayvancılık Stratejik Planlaması için Devlet Koordinasyonunda Güçlü Noktalar ve Zayıf Noktalar 1075.3.5.3 Uygulayıcıların Hayvancılık Politikasına Karşı Tutumlarında Güçlü Noktalar ve Zayıf Noktalar 1085.4 ÖZET VE SONUÇ 1096. BULGULARIN TARTIŞMASI, ÇALIŞMA ÖZETİ, SONUÇ VE ÖNERİLER 1106.1 Giriş 1106.2 Bulguların Özeti 1106.2.1 Hayvancılık Verimlilik Sistemi Faktörü 1106.2.2 Ekonomik Çevre Faktörü 1116.2.3 Kamu Yönetimi ve Yönetişim Faktörü 1116.2.4 İnsan Kaynakları Geliştirme ve Politika Faktörü Yönetimi 1116.2.5 En Önemli Güçlü Noktalar ve Zayıf Noktalar 1126.3 Bulguların Tartışılması 1146.3.1 Hayvancılık verimlilik sistemi faktörleri ile ilişkileri ve geliştirilmiş uygulama hizmetlerinin üç bileşeni 1146.3.2 Ekonomik çevre faktörleri ile geliştirilmiş uygulama hizmetlerinin üç bileşeni arasındaki ilişki 1156.3.3 Kamu yönetimi ve yönetişim ve gelişmiş uygulama hizmetlerinin üç bileşeni arasındaki ilişki 1186.3.4 İnsan kaynakları geliştirme politikasının yönetimi ile iyileştirilmiş uygulama hizmetlerinin üç bileşeni arasındaki ilişki 1206.3.5 Araştırma Sorusuna Cevap 1226.4 Öğütleme1436.5 Sonuç 161 Kaynakça 162 Ekler 173 Anket 190 --- ABSTRACT:Livestock is an important economic component of Chad as a developing country. It shares in overall country's GDP after the oil sector. In spite of its importance, this sector is facing a number of constraints. In order to explore those constraints, this study was investigated the factors that impact the livestock policy. It is hypothesized that the improvement of the livestock sector in Chad is affected by the policy constraints, already being addressed by the Government. A specified research objective of this study is to analyse the weaknesses and the strengths of livestock policy implementation in Chad; as well as to examine livestock policy implementation. The method used in this research both qualitative and quantitative and is based on two sources of data, primary and secondary. The primary data on the implementation of livestock policy were collected by using a survey through the questionnaires addressed to the public officers working at the Ministry of livestock and stakeholders to identify the parameters influencing the implementation of livestock policy. The survey results were analysed by using both quantitative and qualitative methods of analyses. The study relied on the result of the quantitative descriptive analysis. The statistics give a summary and description of the demographic aspects and the study factors after analysis run with the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) programme. The result of open-ended questions was discussed in qualitative analysis and additional questions were added to ask the respondents to select the most significant top three in each part of the three statement-questions each has five strong points and five weak points also were discussed in qualitative analysis. The results of the analyses were further substantiated by the responses from the qualitative part of the survey, by the results of related studies, and by livestock statistical data from the Department of the livestock of Chad to provide a general perspective on the research findings. Descriptive statistics such as mean and frequency distribution were also utilized.The main findings of this research showed that livestock development policy is influenced by four factors: livestock productivity systems; economic environment; public administration and Governance; and management of human resources development policy. The results of the study revealed that among the livestock production system factors in terms of their impact on livestock policy, there are extensive breeding systems; animal health issues; and veterinary pharmacy. In the economic environment, factors are lack of modernization of slaughterhouse; lack of modernization of livestock market systems; lack of livestock trade marketing systems; and lack of livestock budget prioritizing. In public administration and governance identified factors are lack of livestock policy prioritizing; inappropriate project management; lack of strategic management capacity; and lack of administration of the capacity building. And in management of human resources development and policy, the influencing factors are lack of application of the merit system principles; lack of evaluation of administrators; and lack of training and extension. The recommendations are presented around four factors, to improve project management strengthen the collaboration among the agencies involved in policy making and implementation; to address livestock policy as a complex problem which needs a comprehensive approach embracing economic perspective; to modernize vision of livestock policy as an evolving system. These recommendations concern the further implementation of livestock policy and refer to the strategy of the central government in livestock policy that could be pursued across the country. However, all of these recommendations are so important but some of them to be done in short, medium and long term.TABLE OF CONTENTSPage No.LIST OF TABLESXLIST OF FIGURESXILIST OF ABBREVIATIONXII1.STUDY BACKGROUND11.1 Introduction11.2 Statement of Research Problem41.3 Purpose of the Study61.4 Research Objective71.5 Research Questions71.6 Research Hypothesis81.7 Research Design and Methodology81.8 Significance of the Study 9 1.9 Outline of Thesis Chapters 92. LITERATURE REVIEW, POLICY IMPLEMENTATION AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 112.1 Introduction112.2 Policy Definitions122.3 POLICY IMPLEMENTATION142.3.1 Descriptive Models162.3.2 Implication of Descriptive Models162.3.3 Prescriptive Models172.3.3.1 Implication of Prescriptive Models 182.3.4 Rational Approach222.3.5 Political approach242.3.6 Implementation theory: System Model252.3.7 TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP APPROACHES272.3.7.1 Top Down Approach282.3.7.2 Bottom Up Approach282.3.7.3 Synthesis of Bottom-up and Top-down Approaches292.3.8 WHAT IS SUCCESSFUL AND FAILED IMPLEMENTATION?342.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: POLICY IMPLEMENTATION OF LIVESTOCK POLICY362.4.1 FACTORS THAT AFFECT POLICY IMPLEMENTATION362.5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE IMPLEMENTATION OF LIVESTOCK POLICY422.5.1 Livestock Productivity Systems422.5.1.1 Extensive Breedıng System422.5.1.2 Animal Health Issues432.5.1.3 Veterinary Pharmacy432.5.2 Economic Environment442.5.2.1 Livestock Marketing Systems442.5.2.2 Livestock Market Systems 442.5.2.3 Lack of Positive Measures452.5.3 Public Administration and Governance452.5.3.1 Policy Administration452.5.3.2 Public Governance472.5.4 Management of Human Resources Development482.5.4.1 Training and Extension492.5.4.2 Research Services492.5.5 Implementation of Livestock Development Plans502.5.6 Government Coordination for Strategic Planning522.5.7 Attitudes of Implementers Towards the Policy542.5.8 Livestock Planning and Information Services562.5.8.1 Provision of Livestock Technology572.6 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK572.6.1 ELEMENTS OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK582.6.1.1 Policy Content582.6.1.2 Context of Implementation592.6.1.3 Commitment of Implementers to the Policy602.6.1.4 Capacity to Implement Policy612.6.1.5 Support of Clients and Coalitions for Implementation622.6.2 Conceptual Framework652.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION663. OVERVIEW OF SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT OF CHAD AND LIVESTOCK POLICY SYSTEM 683.1 Introduction683.2 Country Profile683.2.1 Colonization and Independent693.2.2 Administration level703.2.3 Government and political situation713.2.4 Natural Constraints713.3.1 Socio-demographic and Economic Characteristics723.3.2 Overview of Socioeconomic Constraints 733.3.3 Political Constraints773.3.4 Livestock Sector Background in Chad793.5 ORGANISATION OF MINISTRY OF PASTORAL DEVELOPMENT AND ANIMAL PRODUCTION OF CHAD 813.5.1 Institutional Policy Framework of Livestock823.5.2. Livestock Institutional Linkages and Partnership833.5.3 Livestock Associative Institutions833.5.4 Private Sector Institutions843.5.5 Non-Governmental Organisations853.6 CONSTRAINTS OF INDUSTRIALISATION AND PRODUCT PROCESSING853.6.1 Slaughterhouses and Slaughter Areas863.6.2 Processed Product Activities863.6.3 Milk Processing Units883.6.4 Transformation Units883.6.5 Processed Product Varieties883.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION894. METHODOLOGY 904.1 Introduction904.2 Purpose of the study904.3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND ANALYTICAL MODEL914.3.1 Research Design and Methodology914.4 Population944.5 Sample944.6 Survey Instrument954.7 Data Collection964.7.1 Pilot Test964.7.2 Actual Survey/Data Collection974.8 Analysis974.9 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION985. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA COLLECTION OF THE STUDY 995.1 Introduction995.2 The Demographic Profile of Sample995.3 Study Factors1005.3.1 Livestock Productivity System Factors1015.3.2 Economic Environment Factors1025.3.3 Public Administration and Governance1035.3.4 Management of Human Resources Development and Policy1045.3.5 The Most Significant Strong Points and Weak Points1065.3.5.1 Strong and weak points of Implementation of Livestock Development Plans1065.3.5.2 Strong Points and Weak point in Government Coordination for Livestock Strategic Planning1075.3.5.3 Strong Points and Weak point in Attitudes of implementers toward the Livestock policy1085.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION1096. DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS, SUMMARY OF THE STUDY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1106.1 Introduction1106.2 Summary of Findings1106.2.1 Livestock Productivity System Factor1106.2.2 Economic Environment Factor1116.2.3 Public Administration and Governance Factor1116.2.4 Management of Human Resources Development and Policy Factor1116.2.5 The Most Significant Strong Points and Weak Points1126.3 Discussion of Findings1146.3.1 Relationship between livestock productivity system factors and the three components of improved implementation services1146.3.2 Relationship between economic environment factors and the three components of improved implementation services1156.3.3 Relationship between public administration and governance and the three components of improved implementation services1186.3.4 Relationship between management of human resources development policy and the three components of improved implementation services1206.3.5 Answer to Research Question1226.4 Recommendation 1436.5 Conclusion 161 Bibliography162 Appendices173 Questionnaires190

Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ; Buckle, Henry Thomas. The love of money -- Burton, Sir Richard Francis. At Meccah the pilgrim?s goal -- Arnold, Matthew. Oxford. English and French prose, a contrast. Sweetness and light -- Freeman, Edward Augustus. The nurse of snow and fire -- Blackmore, Richard Doddridge. Fear in the mist -- Huxley, Thomas Henry. Man and the lower animals -- Bagehot, Walter. Gibbon?s style -- Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. A vision of the soul -- Meredith, George. A diversion played on a penny-whistle. Philosophy and fiction. The comic spirit -- Morris, William. When knights were bold -- Butler, Samuel. Musical banks -- Swinburne, Algernon Charles. The Lake of Gaube. Robert Herrick -- Lecky, William Edward Hartpole. Moral judgements of history -- Harte, Francis Bret. Among the Forty-Niners -- Pater, Walter Horatio. Monna Lisa -- Symonds, John Addington. The Sistine Chapel -- Jefferies, Richard. Out of doors in February -- Stevenson, Robert Louis. A night among the pines. Life and art. Woman she is -- Sharp, William. High noon. The reed player. Whirled stars -- Wilde, Oscar Fingall O?Flahertie Wills. The artist -- The Authorized version of the holy Bible. Preface by the translators. A Messianic vision. Let us now praise famous men. Charity. The Book of Common Prayer: A General confession. The exhortation to the Holy Communion. A bidding prayer. ; Holmes, Oliver Wendell. An infirmary for books -- Kinglake, Alexander William. The sphynx. Constantinople -- Lincoln, Abraham. Gettysburg -- Poe, Edgar Allan. In the hands of the Inquisition. Carpets and culture -- Brown, John. Rab -- Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn. The return of the whaler. Engaged to be married -- Bright, John. The angel of death -- Thackeray, William Makepeace. The fighting Temeraire. Telmessus. The duel with the prince. Snobs -- Browning, Robert. Strafford -- Dickens, Charles. The high court of chancery. At Do-the-boys Hall. Blood-stains. Mrs. Sapsea, in memoriam -- Smiles, Samuel. Manners -- Helps, Sir Arthur. The art of leaving off -- Motley, John Lothrop. Two heroes -- Reade, Charles. The good duke and the arts -- Dana, Richard Henry. A tropical thunderstorm -- Trollope, Anthony. The church in dishabille -- Bronte, Charlotte Nicholls. Nature at evening prayers. A first impression of Belgium -- Jowett, Benjamin. Philosophy and politics -- Thoreau, Henry David. Silence -- Froude, James Anthony. The old order changeth. The last of the Armada. The Iliad -- Cross, Mary Ann (George Eliot). Adam Bede. The inspiration of the East -- Kingsley, Charles. Tobacco. Monotony -- Lowell, James Russell. The sea and sentiment. The pious editor?s creed -- Ruskin, John. The boyhood of Turner. St. Mark?s rest. The peerage of words. Work noble and ignoble -- Whitman, Walt. The bloodbeats of song -- Spencer, Herbert. Democracy in dress -- Tyndall, John. Alone on Monte Rosa. ; Shelley, Percy Bysshe. Poetry and prose: a vulgar error. Niobe -- Lockhart, John Gilson. The influence of Burns -- Carlyle, Thomas. Human dignity. The beautifullest and the squalidest. John Sterling?s last days. Professor Teufelsdrockh?s style -- Hare, Julius Charles. Italics -- John Keats. Preface to ?Endymion? -- Prescott, William Hickling. The colonization of America -- Bancroft, George. The Virginian paradise -- Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Baron Macaulay. Our debt to great minds. The prose writings of Milton. The homely dialect of Bunyan. Dr. Johnson. An admirable Crichton. Wild-cat companies -- Carlyle, Jane Baillie Welsh. Life in London -- Newman, John Henry, Cardinal. At bay. The religion of the day. The gentleman -- Martineau, Harriet. Up and down the pyramid -- Miller, Hugh. Naturalists? nomenclature -- Borrow, George. The Bible in Spain. The fight in the dell -- Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Civilization. Conformity and consistency. The secret of eternal youth. The value of the present moment -- Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer. On rhythm in prose -- Disraeli, Benjamin, Earl of Beaconsfield. The Jews -- Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Woman?s generosity and strength. The faun of Praxiteles -- Maurice, Frederick Denison. The Clapham School -- Browning, Elizabeth Barrett. The true poet?s crown -- Mill, John Stuart. The liberty of the individual -- Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, The Alhambra -- Trench, Richard Chenefix, Archbishop of Dublin. Proverbial philosophy -- Darwin, Charles Robert. Natural selection -- Fitzgerald, Edward. Boat racing at Oxford -- Gladstone, William Ewart. The polity of the Heroic Age. England and foreign policy. ; Campbell, Thomas. Algiers from the sea -- Hallam, Henry. Light from the west -- Brougham, Henry Peter. Greek models -- Davy, Sir Humphrey. The evolution of the arts -- Hazlitt, William. On going a journey. On familiar style. The English Rabelais -- Galt, John. The placing: A.D. 1760 -- Moore, Thomas. A literary duel -- Chalmers, Thomas. The stars in their courses -- Channing, William Ellery. Nationality and style -- Webster, Daniel. Bunker Hill -- Irving, Washington. Columbus the visionary. The widow and her son -- Hunt, James Henry Leigh. The hoop. The burning of Shelley?s body -- De Quincey, Thomas. The secret of prose composition. Style as a fine art. Dreams of an opium-eater -- Napier, Sir William Francis Patrick. Fuentes Onoro. Sir John Moore -- Peacock, Thomas Love. The philosophy of life. The Venuses at Crochet Castle -- Wilson, John (Christopher North). Christopher North?s parish -- Mitford, Mary Russell. A country cricket match -- Whately, Richard, Archbishop of Dublin. Of the best foundation of style -- Byron, George Gordon, Baron. The bitterness of exile -- Milman, Henry Hart. The hymnology of the Latin church -- Alison, Sir Archibald. The freedom of the press. ; Franklin, Benjamin. The whistle -- Fielding, Henry. A moving spectacle. Jonathan Wild?s maxims. The art of dividing books. A farewell voyage -- Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham. The crime of youth. The employment of Indians in the American war. Johnson, Samuel. The Lord Chesterfield. Wit and learning. Dryden and Pope. The conquest of the air -- Hume, David. The virtue of simplicity. Women critics -- Sterne, Laurence. The cant of criticism. The poor ass -- Shenstone, William. On writing and books -- Gray, Thomas. Netley Abbey. Burnham beeches. The grande chartreuse. The laureateship -- Walpole, Horatio, Earl of Orford. Strawberry Hill. The earthquake of 1750. The sedate spectre -- Blair, Hugh. The style is the man -- White, Gilbert. Cuckoos. The tortoise -- Robertson, William. The assassination of Rizzio -- Smollett, Tobias. Tom Bowling. The rulers of the nation. The Maison Caree at Nimes -- Radcliffe, Ann. The Castle of Udolpho -- Mackintosh, Sir James. The French Revolution -- D?Israeli, Isaac. The conversation of men of genius -- Edgeworth, Maria -- The Irish haymaker -- Canning, George. The Jacobin muse. Peace and war -- Hope, Thomas. A Mohammedan teacher -- Wordsworth, William. Prose and metre -- Scott, Sir Walter. Meg Merrilies and the dominie. Desultory reading -- Smith, Sydney. Travellers? tales. Railway regulations. Mrs. Partington -- Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Style. Language -- Jeffrey, Francis. A touchstone of poetic taste -- Southey, Robert. Henry VIII?s popularity. The mourning for Nelson. The Pilgrim?s Progress -- Austen, Jane. A monologue. A scheme for a novel -- Lamb, Charles. Elia at Oxford. Bishop Valentine. Biblia a-biblia. Mrs. Battle?s opinion on whist. A Quakers? meeting -- Landor, Walter Savage. The society of a child. A conversation on style. Schools of poetry. A vision of love, sleep and death. ; Atterbury, Francis, Bishop of Rochester. The Augustan age of English -- Bentley, Richard. The friendship of Epicurus -- Vanbrugh, Sir John. The business of comedy -- Arbuthnot, John. The christening -- Swift, Jonathan. Inconveniences of abolishing Christianity. A meditation upon a broomstick. The duel between Hamilton and Mohun. Lawyers? practice. A standard for language -- Congreve, William. Love, before first sight. An ante-marital agreement -- Mandeville, Bernard. Like a bowl of punch -- Cooper, Anthony Ashley, Earl of Shaftesbury. Ethical doctrine -- Addison, Joseph. Westminster Abbey. The royal exchange. Sunday in the country: Sir Roger at church. Words of foreign coin. Paper manufacture -- Steele, Sir Richard. The art of story-telling. The de Coverley family portraits -- Watts, Isaac. The place of Latin in education -- Saint-John, Henry, Viscount Bolingbroke. Free thinking. Parliament and the executive. The joys of patriotism -- Chambers, Ephraim. Dictionaries -- Middleton, Conyers. Marcus Tullius Cicero -- Berkeley, George, Bishop of Cloyne. Fashions and liquor. The virtues of tar-water -- Gay, John. A pastoral tragedy -- Law, William. A strait-laced mother -- Pope, Alexander. A receipt to make an epic poem. At Oxford -- Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley. ?Ingrafting? for small-pox. To Mr. Pope from Belgrade -- Richardson, Samuel. At home and not at home. Sir Charles Grandison. Self-portraiture -- Amory, Thomas. Love-making extraordinary -- Butler, Joseph, Bishop of Durham. Conscience -- Stanhope, Philip Dormer, Earl of Chesterfield -- Lord Bolingbroke. The dress of thoughts. The je ne sais quoi -- Paltock, Robert. Among the Glumms, or Flying-men -- Adams, Thomas. Comparisons -- Hervey, Lady Mary. Life in Paris -- Brooke, Henry. Imprisonment for debt -- Dodsley, Robert. The lover?s walk at the Leasowes -- Wesley, John. Dress. ; Lock, John. Exercising in English. A fruit diet -- Wood, Anthony. Oxford the home of Minerva -- Pepys, Samuel. Mr. Pepys love of music -- Savile, Sir George, Marquis of Halifax. In defence of the trimmer -- South, Robert. In God?s image. Hypocrites -- Thomas Burnet. Dies Irae -- Sprat, Thomas, Bishop of Rochester. An English academy -- Stillingfleet, Edward, Bishop of Worcester. The search for truth -- Eachard, John. Playing texts -- Glanvill, Joseph. Plainness of speech -- Russell, Rachel. The acquittal of Lord Delamere -- Traherne, Thomas. The world seen by a child -- Behn, Aphra. Perfection in ebony -- Sherlock, William. One foot in the grave -- Burnet, Gilbert, Bishop of Salisbury. William the Third -- Penn, William. Pride of birth -- Barclay, Robert. An apology for Quakers -- Collier, Jeremy. The chief end of comedy -- North, Roger. Music in early days -- Asgill, John. Censorship of the press -- Wallaston, William. Man and nature ; Baxter, Richard. The rest everlasting. Speech with Cromwell -- L?Estrange, Sir Roger. A fox and grapes. A wolf and a lion -- Cudworth, Ralph. The larva of religion -- Cowley, Abraham. This busy world and I. The art of agriculture -- Evelyn, John. The fire of London. Of the original of sculpture -- Hutchinson, Lucy. A hero to his wife -- Marvell, Andrew. The church?s jester -- Sidney, Algernon. The creation of kings -- Vaughan, Henry. Vanitas vanitatum -- Cavendish, Margaret, Duchess of Newcastle. A wife?s testimony -- Fox, George. The protector and the friends -- Boyle, Robert. The style of the scriptures -- Bunyan, John. Mansoul. Mr. By-ends of fair-speech -- Temple, Sir William. Of poetry. The ideal garden -- Barrow, Isaac, Bishop of St. Asaph. Facetiousness -- Cotton, Charles. Of books -- Tillotson, John, Archbishop of Canterbury. Honesty the best policy -- Dryden, John. The father of English poetry. Dramatic poets. A layman?s creed. Fruit of old age ; John Selden. Poetry -- Drummond, William, of Hawthornden. Death, the highway of mortality -- Hobbes, Thomas. Of speech. As a race that is run -- Wither, George. An attack on booksellers -- Quarles, Francis. The covetous man?s care -- Herbert, George. The parson?s library -- Walton, Izaak. Old-fashioned poetry. The sweet singer of ?The temple? -- Howell, James. A letter on wine -- Cromwell, Oliver. Cromwell and Oxford. A familiar letter -- Fabyan, Robert. King Lear -- Holinshed, Raphael. The witches and Macbeth -- Prynne, William. Love-locks -- Earle, John, Bishop of Salisbury. A young raw preacher. A child -- Chillingworth, William. The forgiveness of injuries -- Felltham, Owen. Pulpit oratory -- Digby, Sir Kenelm. The profitableness of study -- Browne, Sir Thomas. Happy dreams. The common course of our diet. The emblems of mortal vanities -- D?Avenant, Sir William. Why books are written -- Waller, Edmund. To my lady -- Fuller, Thomas. Of jesting. The good schoolmaster. A merry digression -- Milton, John. A noble and puissant nation. The censorship of the press. The poet himself as a poem. Custom and error -- Hale, Sir Matthew. Counsel to his children -- Hyde, Edward, Earl of Clarendon. Hampden. Lord Falkland?s open house. Montrose -- Harrington, James. Why commonwealths fall -- Leighton, Robert, Archbishop of Glasgow. The stream of salvation -- Urquhart, Sir Thomas. Scotsmen in London -- Butler, Samuel. A rabble. A small poet -- Taylor, Jeremy, Bishop of Down and Connor. Married life. Mourning. The river. The lark. The rose -- More, Henry. The mystical meaning of the creation -- Wilkins, John, Bishop of Chester. The moon a world. ; Trevisa, John De. St. Patrick?s purgatory -- Chaucer, Geoffrey. The commonplaces of Prudence. The astrolabe -- Juliana of Norwich. Divine love -- Capgrave, John. King Richard to ransom -- Fortescue, Sir John. Chill penury repressed -- Pecock, Reginald, Bishop of Chichester. Virtuous casement -- Mandeville, Sir John. Of the beginning of Mahomet -- Wycliffe, John. Right living -- Caxton, William. Caxton?s ?simple and poor cunning? -- Fisher, John, Bishop of Rochester. Hunters and Christians -- Bourchier, John, Baron Berners. The choosing of a Pope -- More, Sir Thomas. The merits of a merry tale. A providential interposition -- Latimer, Hugh, Bishop of Worcester. Bribes and wages -- Cranmer, Thomas Archbishop of Canterbury. The scripture in the vulgar tongue -- Daniel, Samuel. The danger of innovation -- Shakespeare, William. A royal wooing. Hamlet?s advice to the players. The quintessence of dust. Much virtue in if -- James I, King. The uncivil trick of smoking -- Nash, Thomas. English scholarship. A camp follower -- Wotton, Sir Henry. A letter to John Milton. A last will and testament -- Dekker, Thomas. Sitting on the stage. The appeal of conscience -- Donne, John. Mercy and compassion. Expostulations to my God -- Jonson, Benjamin. Of style. Shakespeare. Lord Bacon -- Hall, Joseph, Bishop of Exeter and Norwich. Balaam?s ass. On the sight of a great library -- Purchas, Samuel. The sea -- Peacham, Henry. Of style in speaking and writing -- Burton, Robert. Melancholy mad -- Coryate, Thomas. The use of forks at table -- Overbury, Sir Thomas. A fair and happy milkmaid -- Herbert, Edward. A knightly obligation -- Hales, John. How to read history. ; Mode of access: Internet.

v. 750. V -- Vallejo L -- v. 751. Vallejo M -- Vans -- v. 752. Vänt -- Vážn -- v. 753. Vazo -- Venezuela Com -- v. 754. Venezuela Con -- Vereim -- v. 755. Verein -- Vers L -- v. 756. Vers M -- Victor M -- v. 757. Victor O -- Vigd -- v. 758. Vige -- Vinea -- v. 759. Vineb -- Vision R -- v. 760. Vision S -- Voice C -- v. 761. Voice D -- Voso -- v. 762. Vosp -- Vz -- v. 763. W -- Wagner, Richard A -- v. 764. Wagner, Richard B -- Walker, William F -- v. 765. Walker, William G -- Walz -- v. 766. Wam -- Ward A -- v. 767. Ward B -- Warsh -- v. 768. Warsi -- Waso -- v. 769. Wasp -- Water Supply Engineering B -- v. 770. Water Supply Engineering C -- Weak -- v. 771. Weal -- Wedk -- v. 772. Wedl -- Welc -- v. 773. Weld -- Wenzel R -- v. 774. Wenzel S -- West Virginia I -- v. 775. West Virginia J -- Whare -- v. 776. Wharf -- White E -- v. 777. White F -- Whittier L -- v. 778. Whittier M -- Wijg -- v. 779. Wijh -- William B -- v. 780. William C -- Willis S -- v. 781. Willis T -- Wimh -- v. 782. Wimi -- Winters G -- v. 783. Winters H -- Wit and Humor, American R -- v. 784. Wit and Humor, American S -- Woh -- v. 785. Woi -- Woman-Employment-U.S.T -- v. 786. Woman-Employment-U.S.U -- Wood G -- v. 787. Wood H -- Woold -- v. 788. Woole -- World Politics, 1919- T -- v. 789. World Politics, 1919- U -- World War, 1939-1945 EC -- v. 790. World War, 1939-1945 ED -- World War, 1939-1945 Ph -- v. 791. World War, 1939-1945 Pi -- World War, 1939-1945 Regional C -- v. 792. World War, 1939-1945 Regional D -- Wright G -- v. 793. Wright H -- Wz -- v. 794. X -- Yeast V -- v. 795. Yeast W -- Young C -- v. 796. Young D -- Yz -- v. 797. Z -- Zehn J -- v. 798. Zehn K -- Zimmerman C -- v. 799. Zimmerman D -- Zoology A -- v. 800. Zoology B -- Zy. ; v. 730. U -- Underdeveloped Areas A -- v. 731. Underdeveloped Areas B -- Union of South Africa So -- v. 732. Union of South Africa Sp -- United States Adu -- v. 733. United States Adv -- United States Army R -- v. 734. United States Army S -- United States Commerce C -- v. 735. United States Commerce D -- United States Division S -- v. 736. United States Division T -- United States Foreign Relations R -- v. 737. United States Relations S -- United States Historic -- v. 738. United States History -- United States History-Revolution-Poetry S -- v. 739. United States History-Revolution-Poetry T -- United States History-Civil War-Military-Regimental History L -- v. 740. United States History-Civil War-Military-Regimental History M -- United States History-Yearbooks -- v. 741. United States Ho -- United States Justice Department Ac -- v. 742. United States Justice Department Ad -- United States National Aeronautic and Space Administration R -- v. 743. United States National Aeronautic and Space Administration S -- United States Politics, 1865-1897 J -- v. 744. United States Politics, 1865-1897 K -- United States Rac -- v. 745. United States Rad -- United States State Department P -- v. 746. United States State Department Q -- United States War Information Office A -- v. 747. United States War Information Office B -- Université S -- v. 748. Université T -- Urban O -- v. 749. Urban P -- Uz. ; v. 703. T -- Tall -- v. 704. Talm -- Tariff I -- v. 705. Tariff J -- Taxation-Jurisprudence F -- v. 706. Taxation-Jurisprudence G -- Taylor Jer -- v. 707. Taylor Jes -- Tecn -- v. 708. Teco -- Television C -- v. 709. Television D -- Tena -- v. 710. Tenb -- Tess -- v. 711. Test -- Textile Machinery S -- v. 712. Textile Machinery T -- Their -- v. 713. Theis -- Thern -- v. 714. Thero -- Thomas V -- v. 715. Thomas W -- Thorpe B -- v. 716. Thorpe C -- Tidev -- v. 717. Tidew -- Tires -- v. 718. Tiret -- Tokio G -- v. 719. Tokio H -- Torl -- v. 720. Torm -- Towards E -- v. 721. Towards F -- Trade Unions G -- v. 722. Trade Unions H -- Transcendentalism B -- v. 723. Transcendentalism C -- Treason-Trials H -- v. 724. Treason-Trials I -- Trial -- v. 725. Triam -- Trotzky, Lev G -- v. 726. Trotzky, Lev H -- Tube R -- v. 727. Tube S -- Turin C -- v. 728. Turin D -- Tuw -- v. 729. Tux -- Tz. ; v. 636. S -- Safe -- v. 637. Saff -- Saint Louis G -- v. 638. Saint Louis H -- Saler -- v. 639. Sales -- Salvation Army R -- v. 640. Salvation Army S -- Sanchez L -- v. 641. Sanchez M -- Sans -- v. 642. Sant -- Sarl -- v. 643. Sarm -- Savar -- v. 644. Savas -- Schaa -- v. 645. Schab -- Schid -- v. 646. Schie -- Schmidt B -- v. 647. Schmidt C -- Scholl S -- v. 648. Scholl T -- Schopf E -- v. 649. Schopf F -- Schulze F -- v. 650. Schulze G -- Science Col -- v. 651. Science Com -- Scoa -- v. 652. Scob -- Scott -- v. 653. Scotu -- Seals and Seal Fisheries C -- v. 654. Seals and Seal Fisheries D -- Sedl -- v. 655. Sedm -- Sell -- v. 656. Selm -- Sericulture A -- v. 657. Sericulture B -- Sever G -- v. 658. Sever H -- Shakers L -- v. 659. Shakers M -- Shakespeare A -- v. 660. Shakespeare B -- Sheldon S -- v. 661. Sheldon T -- Shipping G -- v. 662. Shipping H -- Shórn -- v. 663. Shoro -- Shrub -- v. 664. Shruc -- Sigg -- v. 665. Sigh -- Simek -- v. 666. Simel -- Singing Q -- v. 667. Singing R -- Skinner B -- v. 668. Skinner C -- Slavs B -- v. 669. Slavs C -- Smith A -- v. 670. Smith B -- Smith, William A -- v. 671. Smith, William B -- Social D -- v. 672. Social E -- Socialism, 1923-1933 H -- v. 673. Socialism, 1923-1933 I -- Societe Al -- v. 674. Société AM -- Societies R -- v. 675. Societies S -- Sociology T -- v. 676. Sociology U -- Solís -- v. 677. Solit -- Sonh -- v. 678. Soni -- Sousa A -- v. 679. Sousa B -- Southgate V -- v. 680. Southgate W -- Spain-Foreign Relations F -- v. 681. Spain-Foreign Relations G -- Spanish America-History-to 1600 -- v. 682. Spanish America-History-after 1600 -- Speech O -- v. 683. Speech P -- Spirit F -- v. 684. Spirit G -- Spuc -- v. 685. Spud -- Stage-France O -- v. 686. Stage-France P -- Stanford R -- v. 687. Stanford S -- Statement F -- v. 688. Statement G -- Sted -- v. 689. Stee -- Stel -- v. 690. Stem -- Stevenson I -- v. 691. Stevenson J -- Stockholders F -- v. 692. Stockholders G -- Storg -- v. 693. Storh -- Straus D -- v. 694. Straus E -- Struc -- v. 695. Strud -- Stuer -- v. 696. Stues -- Sueb -- v. 697. Suec -- Summ -- v. 698. Sumn -- Surim -- v. 699. Surin -- Swan H -- v. 700. Swan I -- Swey -- v. 701. Swez -- Symbolism in Architecture R -- v. 702. Symbolism in Architecture S -- Sz. ; v. 603. Q -- Quek -- v. 604. Quel -- Qw -- v. 605. R -- Radio in Politics B -- v. 606. Radio in Politics C -- Railways Ab -- v. 607. Railways Ac -- Railways D -- v. 608. Railways E -- Rak -- v. 609. Ral -- Rape -- v. 610. Rapf -- Raymond V -- v. 611. Raymond W -- Recei -- v. 612. Récéj -- Reed V -- v. 613. Reed W -- Régim -- v. 614. Regin -- Reiner I -- v. 615. Reiner J -- Religion I -- v. 616. Religion J -- Rentm -- v. 617. Rentn -- Retail Trade R -- v. 618. Retail Trade S -- Revue S -- v. 619. Revue T -- Rhodesia, Northern L -- v. 620. Rhodesia, Northern M -- Richl -- v. 621. Richm -- Rihs -- v. 622. Riht -- Ritter C -- v. 623. Ritter D -- Roads-U.S.M -- v. 624. Roads-U.S.N -- Robinson J -- v. 625. Robinson K -- Rodrigues G -- v. 626. Rodrigues H -- Rolfe F -- v. 627. Rolfe G -- Rome (City)-P -- v. 628. Rome (City)-Q -- Rord -- v. 629. Rore -- Ross C -- v. 630. Ross D -- Rousseau L -- v. 631. Rousseau M -- Roźd -- v. 632. Roze -- Rul -- v. 633. Rum -- Russia Ar -- v. 634. Russia As -- Russia-Social Conditions, 1917 K -- v. 635. Russia-Social Conditions, 1917 L -- Rz. ; v. 548. P -- Pagg -- v. 549. Pagh -- Paintings-Collections R -- v. 550. Paintings-Collections S -- Paleography L -- v. 551. Paleography M -- Palmer K -- v. 552. Palmer L -- Pann -- v. 553. Pano -- Pap -- v. 554. Paq -- Paris E -- v. 555. Paris F -- Parkh -- v. 556. Parki -- Parties, Political D -- v. 557. Parties, Political E -- Patd -- v. 558. Paté -- Paul J -- v. 559. Paul K -- Pearce C -- v. 560. Pearce D -- Pei -- v. 561. Pej -- Pennsylvania F -- v. 562. Pennsylvania G -- Pén [i.e. Pénz] -- v. 563. Peo -- Periodicals C -- v. 564. Periodicals D -- Periodicals-U.S.I -- v. 565. Periodicals-U.S.J -- Persia C -- v. 566. Persia D -- Peru -- v. 567. Perv -- Petri R -- v. 568. Petri S -- Pfeiffer E -- v. 569. Pfeiffer F -- Philip G -- v. 570. Philip H -- Philology S -- v. 571. Philology T -- Phok -- v. 572. Phol -- Phrom -- v. 573. Phron -- Picb -- v. 574. Picc -- Pik -- v. 575. Pil -- Pioneer Life-U.S.V -- v. 576. Pioneer Life-U.S.W -- Pittsburgh S -- v. 577. Pittsburgh T -- Plas -- v. 578. Plat -- Plup -- v. 579. Pluq -- Poetry, American A -- v. 580. Poetry, American B -- Poetry, American Wis -- v. 581. Poetry, American, Wit -- Poetry, Dutch S -- v. 582. Poetry, Dutch T -- Poetry, English, Hist. & Crit., 20th Cent. C -- v. 583. Poetry, English, Hist. & Crit., 20th Cent. D -- Poetry, Hungarian A -- v. 584. Poetry, Hungarian, B -- Poetry, Spanish P -- v. 585. Poetry, Spanish Q -- Poland F -- v. 586. Poland G -- Polish Literature, Hist. & Crit. O -- v. 587. Polish Literature, Hist. & Crit. P -- Polska Akademja Umiejetnosci A -- v. 588. Polska Akademja Umiejetnosci B -- Popar -- v. 589. Popas -- Portrait S -- v. 590. Portrait T -- Postage Stamps R -- v. 591. Postage Stamps S -- Poula -- v. 592. Poulb -- Pram -- v. 593. Pran -- Press, Liberty of H -- v. 594. Press, Liberty of I -- Prier -- v. 595. Pries -- Printing G -- v. 596. Printing H -- Privies N -- v. 597. Privies O -- Proj -- v. 598. Prok -- Protection V -- v. 599. Protection W -- Prussia-History-Frederick II C -- v. 600. Prussia-History-Frederick II D -- Psyk -- v. 601. Psyl -- Puli -- v. 602. Pulj -- Pyz. ; v. 509. N -- Nan -- v. 510. Nao -- Nash -- v. 511. Nasi -- National C -- v. 512. National D -- National Sh -- v. 513. National Si -- Natural History R -- v. 514. Natural History S -- Naval E -- v. 515. Naval F -- Navy R -- v. 516. Navy S -- Ned -- v. 517. Nee -- Neh -- v. 518. Nei -- Netherlands (Kingdom, 1815- ) O -- v. 519. Netherlands (Kingdom, 1815- ) P -- Neud -- v. 520. Neue -- New England D -- v. 521. New England E -- New K -- v. 522. New L -- New York (city) B -- v. 523. New York (city) C -- New York (city) L -- v. 524. New York (city) M -- New York N -- v. 525. New York O -- New York (state) H -- v. 526. New York (state) I -- New Zealand C -- v. 527. New Zealand D -- Newspapers E -- v. 528. Newspapers F -- Nicol -- v. 529. Nicom -- Ninn -- v. 530. Nino -- Nole -- v. 531. Nolf -- North Am -- v. 532. North An -- Northwestern O -- v. 533. Northwestern P -- Noth -- v. 534. Notti -- Numismatics C -- v. 535. Numismatics D -- Nz -- v. 536. O -- Occupations C -- v. 537. Occupations D -- Oese -- v. 538. Oesf -- Ohio H -- v. 539. Ohio I -- Old L -- v. 540. Old M -- Omaha R -- v. 541. Omaha S -- Oor -- v. 542. Oos -- Oratory R -- v. 543. Oratory S -- Organic R -- v. 544. Organic S -- Orrego L -- v. 545. Orrego M -- Ostl -- v. 546. Ostm -- Outs -- v. 547. Outt -- Oz. ; v. 450. M -- Mccol -- v. 451. Mccom -- Mcgrad -- v. 452. Mcgrae -- Mackenzie G -- v. 453. Mackenzie H -- Macq -- v. 454. Macr -- Maga -- v. 455. Magb -- Maic -- v. 456. Maid -- Malat -- v. 457. Malau -- Maml -- v. 458. Mamm -- Mana -- v. 459. Manb -- Mannk -- v. 460. Mannl -- Many -- v. 461. Manz -- Marc -- v. 462. Mard -- Maris -- v. 463. Marit -- Marriage F -- v. 464. Marriage G -- Martens E -- v. 465. Martens F -- Martr -- v. 466. Marts -- Masc -- v. 467. Masd -- Massachusetts I -- v. 468. Massachusetts J -- Mathematics K -- v. 469. Mathematics L -- Matthews D -- v. 470. Matthews E -- Max -- v. 471. May -- Meb -- v. 472. Mec -- Medic -- v. 473. Medid -- Mej -- v. 474. Mek -- Memory R -- v. 475. Memory S -- Meq -- v. 476. Mer -- Merv -- v. 477. Merw -- Meteorology C -- v. 478. Meteorology D -- Metropolitan M -- v. 479. Metropolitan N -- Mexico G -- v. 480. Mexico H -- Meyk -- v. 481. Meyl -- Mich -- v. 482. Mici -- Mikn -- v. 483. Mikó -- Military L -- v. 484. Military M -- Milla -- v. 485. Millb -- Milton L -- v. 486. Milton M -- Mines and Mining G -- v. 487. Mines and Mining H -- Mirac -- v. 488. Mirad -- Missions, Foreign E -- v. 489. Missions, Foreign F -- Mitb -- v. 490. Mitc -- Modn -- v. 491. Modo -- Moll -- v. 492. Molm -- Money F -- v. 493. Money G -- Monof -- v. 494. Monog -- Monteiro L -- v. 495. Monteiro M -- Mónu -- v. 496. Monv -- Mord -- v. 497. More -- Morl -- v. 498. Morm -- Morse E -- v. 499. Morse F -- Motd -- v. 500. Mote -- Mountaineering M -- v. 501. Mountaineering N -- Moving Pictures R -- v. 502. Moving Pictures S -- Mufs -- v. 503. Muft -- Municipal C -- v. 504. Municipal D -- Murk -- v. 505. Murl -- Music B -- v. 506. Music C -- Music T -- v. 507. Music U -- Mutt -- v. 508. Mutu -- Mz. ; v. 414. L -- Labor G -- v. 415. Labor H -- Labour Party, Gt. Br. D -- v. 416. Labour Party, Gt. Br. E -- Lagd -- v. 417. Lage -- Lamm -- v. 418. Lamn -- Land, Public-U.S.N -- v. 419. Land, Public-U.S.O -- Lang O -- v. 420. Lang P -- Lapk -- v. 421. Lapl -- Latg -- v. 422. Lath -- Latth -- v. 423. Latti -- Law S -- v. 424. Law T -- Law, Maritime A -- v. 425. Law, Maritime B -- Leadh -- v. 426. Leadi -- Lebn -- v. 427. Lebo -- Lefk -- v. 428. Lefl -- Lehm -- v. 429. Lehn -- Lenc -- v. 430. Lend -- Leroy E -- v. 431. Leroy F -- Letters E -- v. 432. Letters F -- Levn -- v. 433. Levo -- Liberalism K -- v. 434. Liberalism L -- Libraries (Place) N -- v. 435. Libraries (Place) O -- Lich -- v. 436. Lici -- Lighthouses H -- v. 437. Lighthouses I -- Lincoln A -- v. 438. Lincoln B -- Lior -- v. 439. Lios -- Literature P -- v. 440. Literature Q -- Living Expenses G -- v. 441. Living Expenses H -- Locomotives A -- v. 442. Locomotives B -- Loll -- v. 443. Lolm -- London U -- v. 444. London V -- Lord R -- v. 445. Lord S -- Louis XVI -- v. 446. Louis XVII -- Lowe S -- v. 447. Lowe T -- Ludwig O -- v. 448. Ludwig P -- Lutg -- v. 449. Luth -- Lz. ; v. 363. I -- Idn -- v. 364. Ido -- Illumination of Books and Manuscripts S -- v. 365. Illumination of Books and Manuscripts T -- Impos -- v. 366. Impot -- Independence D -- v. 367. Independence E -- India, History E -- v. 368. India, History F -- Indians, Central America, Tribes L -- v. 369. Indians, Central America, Tribes M -- Indians, North America S -- v. 370. Indians, North America T -- Indib -- v. 371. Indić -- Industrial Arts (Place) E -- v. 372. Industrial Arts (Place) F -- Industries (Place) U -- v. 373. Industries (Place) V -- Inl -- v. 374. Inm -- Institut M -- v. 375. Institut N -- Insurance I -- v. 376. Insurance J -- Intellectuals (Place) F -- v. 377. Intellectuals (Place) G -- International Ch -- v. 378. International Ci -- International LaC -- v. 379. International Lad -- Internationalism B -- v. 380. Internationalism C -- Iowa R -- v. 381. Iowa S -- Irish L -- v. 382. Irish M -- Isa -- v. 383. Isb -- Italian Language H -- v. 384. Italian Language I -- Italy, History to 1815 -- v. 385. Italy, History-After 1815 -- Iz -- v. 386. J -- Jagem -- v. 387. Jagen -- Jansen T -- v. 388. Jansen U -- Jard -- v. 389. Jaré -- Jels -- v. 390. Jelt -- Jesuits and Jesuitism U -- v. 391. Jesuits and Jesuitism V -- Jews, Anti-Semitic Writings M -- v. 392. Jews, Anti-Semitic Writings N -- Jews So -- v. 393. Jews Sp -- Johnm -- v. 394. Johnn -- Jolk -- v. 395. Joll -- Jorg -- v. 396. Jorh -- Journey B -- v. 397. Journey C -- Juk -- v. 398. Jul -- Juvenile Literature, Drama, American C -- v. 399. Juvenile Literature, Drama, American D -- Jz -- v. 400. K -- Kampe -- v. 401. Kampf -- Karo -- v. 402. Karp -- Keem -- v. 403. Keen -- Kennedy J -- v. 404. Kennedy K -- Kets -- v. 405. Kett -- Kinf -- v. 406. King -- Kirr -- v. 407. Kirs -- Kloo -- v. 408. Klop -- Kobd -- v. 409. Kobe -- Kolor -- v. 410. Kolos -- Kor -- v. 411. Kos -- Kreus -- v. 412. Kreut -- Kuer -- v. 413. Kues -- Kz. ; v. 330. H -- Hahm -- v. 331. Hahn -- Hall J -- v. 332. Hall K -- Hamilton J -- v. 333. Hamilton K -- Handwriting R -- v. 334. Handwriting S -- Harbors M -- v. 335. Harbors N -- Harper V -- v. 336. Harper W -- Hartmann K -- v. 337. Hartmann L -- Hathaway E -- v. 338. Hathaway F -- Hawkins L -- v. 339. Hawkins M -- Heart's T -- v. 340. Hearts U -- Hegel H -- v. 341. Hegel I -- Heller J -- v. 342. Heller K -- Henry of K -- v. 343. Henry of L -- Heredity R -- v. 344. Heredity S -- Hertling O -- v. 345. Hertling P -- Hibben S -- v. 346. Hibben T -- Hiller F -- v. 347. Hiller G -- Historia A -- v. 348. Historia B -- History, General-18th Century Works B -- v. 349. History, General-18th Century Works C -- Hodge B -- v. 350. Hodge C -- Hog -- v. 351. Hoh -- Holr -- v. 352. Hols -- Hond -- v. 353. Hone -- Horn L -- v. 354. Horn M -- Hot R -- v. 355. Hot S -- Housing-Working Class H -- v. 356. Housing-Working Class I -- Howl -- v. 357. Howm -- Hughes F -- v. 358. Hughes G -- Humo -- v. 359. Hump -- Hunting N -- v. 360. Hunting O -- Hut -- v. 361. Huu -- Hygiene, Public L -- v. 362. Hygiene, Public M -- Hyz. ; v. 291. G -- Gall L -- v. 292. Gall M -- Gandía E -- v. 293. Gandía F -- Gardiner G -- v. 294. Gardiner H -- Gases A -- v. 295. Gases B -- Gazs -- v. 296. Gazt -- General E -- v. 297. General F -- Geography As -- v. 298. Geography At -- Geology O -- v. 299. Geology P -- Geometry S -- v. 300. Geometry T -- Gerk -- v. 301. Gerl -- German Literature S -- v. 302. German Literature T -- Germany C -- v. 303. Germany D -- Germany-History 1847 -- v. 304. German-History 1848 -- Gerom -- v. 305. Geron -- Giac -- v. 306. Giad -- Gilds G -- v. 307. Gilds H -- Girk -- v. 308. Girl -- Glay -- v. 309. Glaz -- Godf -- v. 310. Godg -- Gold Mines and Mining-Al -- v. 311. Gold Mines and Mining-Am -- Gol [i.e. Golz] -- v. 312. Gom -- Gook -- v. 313. Gool -- Goula -- v. 314. Goulb -- Grad -- v. 315. Grae -- Grang -- v. 316. Granh -- Great Britain I -- v. 317. Great Britain J -- Great Britain-Description and Travel,1800-1850 -- v. 318. Great Britain-Description and Travel, 1850-1900 -- Great Britain-Govt. B -- v. 319. Great Britain-Govt. C -- Great Britain-Hist., 19th cent. F -- v. 320. Great Britain-Hist.,19th cent. G -- Great Britain-Politics, 1660-1714 R -- v. 321. Great Britain-Politics, 1660-1714 S -- Great Britain-Trade, Board of U -- v. 322. Great Britain-Trade, Board of V -- Greece (Modern)-History, 1830 M -- v. 323. Greece (Modern)-History, 1830 N -- Greene H -- v. 324. Greene I -- Grey N -- v. 325. Grey O -- Grog -- v. 326. Groh -- Grunds -- v. 327. Grundt S -- Gueu -- v. 328. Guev -- Gumo -- v. 329. Gump -- Gzow. ; v. 249. F -- Fairs F -- v. 250. Fairs G -- Fans -- v. 251. Fant -- Fascism-Germany B -- v. 252. Fascism-Germany C -- Fearh -- v. 253. Feari -- Felln -- v. 254. Fello -- Ferrari -- v. 255. Ferrarj -- Fev -- v. 256. Few -- Fiction, American Ham -- v. 257. Fiction, American Han -- Fiction, American Will -- v. 258. Fiction, American Wilm -- Fiction, Dutch A -- v. 259. Fiction, Dutch B -- Fiction, English Kim -- v. 260. Fiction, English Kin -- Fiction, Flemish L -- v. 261. Fiction, Flemish M -- Fiction, German A -- v. 262. Fiction, German B -- Fiction, Lettish J -- v. 263. Fiction, Lettish K -- Fiction, Swiss-German B -- v. 264. Fiction, Swiss-German C -- Filmr -- v. 265. Films -- Finance, U.S., 1813 -- v. 266. Finance, U.S., 1814 -- Finland R -- v. 267. Finland S -- Fischa -- v. 268. Fischb -- Fishing A -- v. 269. Fishing B -- Flanders G -- v. 270. Flanders H -- Flora F -- v. 271. Flora G -- Flya -- v. 272. Flyb -- Folklore N -- v. 273. Folklore O -- Fond -- v. 274. Fone -- Før N -- v. 275. For O -- Forestry-Germany S -- v. 276. Forestry-Germany T -- Forter -- v. 277. Fortes -- Fourm -- v. 278. Fourn -- France Ar -- v. 279. France As -- France-Foreign Relations R -- v. 280. France-Foreign Relations S -- France-History-Revolution O -- v. 281. France-History-Revolution P -- France-Statistics M -- v. 282. France-Statistics N -- Frank E -- v. 283. Frank F -- Frederick I, King of Prussia -- v. 284. Frederick II, King of Prussia -- Freemasons P -- v. 285. Freemasons Q -- French Language-Dictionaries D -- v. 286. French Language-Dictionaries E -- Fresco Paintings B -- v. 287. Fresco Paintings C -- Friends, Society of. L -- v. 288. Friends, Society of. M -- Früh [i.e. Fruh] -- v. 289. Frui -- Funck J -- v. 290. Funck K -- Fyz. ; v. 214. E -- Eastern Col -- v. 215. Eastern Com -- Ecole B -- v. 216. Ecole C -- Economic History-Chile F -- v. 217. Economic History-Chile G -- Economic History I -- v. 218. Economic History J -- Economic History-U.S.F -- v. 219. Economic History-U.S.G -- Economics, 1848-1889 E -- v. 220. Economics, 1848-1889 F -- Edel -- v. 221. Edem -- Education E -- v. 222. Education F -- Education O -- v. 223. Education P -- Education-U.S.-N.J.T -- v. 224. Education-U.S.-N.J.U -- Egypt C -- v. 225. Egypt D -- Eisenstein I -- v. 226. Eisenstein J -- Electric M -- v. 227. Electric N -- Electrons B -- v. 228. Electrons C -- Ellis S -- v. 229. Ellis T -- Emigration, Canada N -- v. 230. Emigration, Canada O -- Enchanted R -- v. 231. Enchanted S -- Engineering Ch -- v. 232. Engineering Ci -- English Language-Dictionaries G -- v. 233. English Language-Dictionaries H -- English Literature S -- v. 234. English Literature T -- Epitaphs T -- v. 235. Epitaphs U -- Ero -- v. 236. Erp -- Espl -- v. 237. Espm -- Essays P -- v. 238. Essays R -- Ethics G -- v. 239. Ethics H -- Etr -- v. 240. Ets -- Europe-History H -- v. 241. Europe-History I -- European War, Aerial Operations M -- v. 242. European War, Aerial Operations N -- European War, Economic Aspects Germany K -- v. 243. European War, Economic Aspects Germany L -- European War, Neutrality R -- v. 244. European War, Neutrality S -- European War, Regimental History F -- v. 245. European War, Regimental History G -- European War, Great Britain G -- v. 246. European War, Great Britain H -- Evero -- v. 247. Everp -- Exhibitions C -- v. 248. Exhibitions D -- Ez. ; v. 177. D -- Dale C -- v. 178. Dale D -- Dancing F -- v. 179. Dancing G -- Danzig G -- v. 180. Danzig H -- Dauw -- v. 181. Daux -- Dawn -- v. 182. Dawo -- Debray -- v. 183. Debraz -- Defei -- v. 184. Defel -- Delaware C -- v. 185. Delaware D -- Democracy-U.S.B -- v. 186. Democracy-U.S.C -- Denton, Name [i.e. Denton (Name)] -- v. 187. Denton, County [i.e. Denton County] -- Desmares -- v. 188. Desmaret -- Deutsche J -- v. 189. Deutsche K -- Dewar M -- v. 190. Dewar N -- Dickens, Charles F -- v. 191. Dickens, Charles G -- Dikes H -- v. 192. Dikes I -- Disaster Relief B -- v. 193. Disaster Relief C -- Divo -- v. 194. Divr -- Dog L -- v. 195. Dog M -- Donato L -- v. 196. Donato M -- Douglas P -- v. 197. Douglas R -- Drama, American A -- v. 198. Drama, American B -- Drama, American Mi -- v. 199. Drama, American Mo -- Drama C -- v. 200. Drama D -- Drama, English Hol -- v. 201. Drama, English Hom -- Drama, English Translations From . R -- v. 202. Drama, English Translations From . S -- Drama, French J -- v. 203. Drama, French K -- Drama, German Bas -- v. 204. Drama, German Bat -- Drama, German, Low German D -- v. 205. Drama, German, Low German E -- Drama, L -- v. 206. Drama, M -- Drama, Spanish Ger -- v. 207. Drama, Spanish Ges -- Drama, Walloon W -- v. 208. Drama, Walloon X -- Dreu -- v. 209. Drev -- Dublin U -- v. 210. Dublin V -- Duke O -- v. 211. Duke P -- Duper -- v. 212. Dupes -- Dutch Language D -- v. 213. Dutch Language E -- Dz. ; v. 107. C -- Cah -- v. 108. Cai -- Cale -- v. 109. Calf -- California V -- v. 110. California W -- Cameron, I -- v. 111. Cameron, J -- Canada B -- v. 112. Canada C -- Canada Statistics Bureau M -- v. 113. Canada Statistics Bureau N -- Canaq -- v. 114. Canar -- Capeh -- v. 115. Capei -- Cardif -- v. 116. Cardig -- Carm -- v. 117. Carn -- Carrik -- v. 118. Carril -- Case A -- v. 119. Case B -- Castles R -- v. 120. Castles S -- Cathedrals S -- v. 121. Cathedrals T -- Catholic Church Roman L -- v. 122. Catholic Church Roman M -- Cauch -- v. 123. Cauci -- Cement and Concrete M -- v. 124. Cement and Concrete P -- Ceo -- v. 125. Cep -- Chah -- v. 126. Chai -- Chand -- v. 127. Chane -- Charities I -- v. 128. Charities J -- Charz -- v. 129. Chas -- Chemical Industries I -- v. 130. Chemical Industries J -- Chemm -- v. 131. Chemn -- Chicago B -- v. 132. Chicago C -- Children AC -- v. 133. Children AD -- Chile T -- v. 134. Chile U -- Chinese A -- v. 135. Chinese B -- Christ L -- v. 136. Christ M -- Christianity E -- v. 137. Christianity F -- Church Al -- v. 138. Church Am -- Church I -- v. 139. Church J -- Chyz -- v. 140. Ci -- Cities-Plans-D -- v. 141. Cities-Plans-E -- Civil R -- v. 142. Civil S -- Claq -- v. 143. Clar -- Classification K -- v. 144. Classification L -- Clergy F -- v. 145. Clergy G -- Club T -- v. 146. Club U -- Cobb -- v. 147. Cobd -- Coi -- v. 148. Coj -- Collection K -- v. 149. Collection L -- Collim -- v. 150. Collin -- Colonies and Colonization A -- v. 151. Colonies and Colonization B -- Columbia University Q -- v. 152. Columbia University R -- Coml -- v. 153. Comm -- Commerce Am -- v. 154. Commerce An -- Commerce-New York -- v. 155. Commerce-New Zealand -- Commis -- v. 156. Commit -- Competition-Unfair F -- v. 157. Competition-Unfair G -- Cone -- v. 158. Conf -- Congres H -- v. 159. Congres I -- Conr -- v. 160. Cons -- Continuation L -- v. 161. Continuation M -- Cookery B -- v. 162. Cookery C -- Cooperation S -- v. 163. Cooperation T -- Copyright M -- v. 164. Copyright N -- Coronations G -- v. 165. Coronations H -- Cortazar C -- v. 166. Cortazar D -- Cotner T -- v. 167. Cotner U -- Country Life-United States -- v. 168. Country Life-Uruguay -- Cowper W -- v. 169. Cowper Family -- Creation-Biblical Account-H -- v. 170. Creation-Biblical Account-I -- Criminal H -- v. 171. Criminal I -- Crip -- v. 172. Criq -- Crosby G -- v. 173. Crosby H -- Cua -- v. 174. Cub -- Cunningham A -- v. 175. Cunningham B -- Cux -- v. 176. Cuy -- Cz. ; v. 52. B -- Bader -- v. 53. Bades -- Baker, I -- v. 54. Baker, J -- Ballads, E -- v. 55. Ballads, F -- Banco P -- v. 56. Banco R -- Banks and Banking-Gt. Br. S -- v. 57. Banks and Banking-Gt. Br. T -- Baptists-U -- v. 58. Baptists-V -- Barlac -- v. 59. Barlad -- Barry, I -- v. 60. Barry, J -- Basr -- v. 61. Bass -- Baud -- v. 62. Baue -- Beac -- v. 63. Bead -- Beck -- v. 64. Becl -- Beh -- v. 65. Bei -- Belk -- v. 66. Bell -- Bend -- v. 67. Bene -- Benz -- v. 68. Beo -- Berlin F -- v. 69. Berlin G -- Berr -- v. 70. Bers -- Bet -- v. 71. Beu -- Bible. Zulu -- v. 72. Bible. Selections -- Bible. N.T.: Crit -- v. 73. Bible. N.T.-D -- Bible. O.T. Pr -- v. 74. Bible. O.T. Ps -- Bibliography-O -- v. 75. Bibliography-P -- Bibliotheca O -- v. 76. Bibliotheca P -- Bik -- v. 77. Bil -- Bio -- v. 78. Bip -- Bisl -- v. 79. Bism -- Blai -- v. 80. Blaj -- Blis -- v. 81. Blit -- Bob -- v. 82. Boc -- Bog -- v. 83. Boh -- Bolr -- v. 84. Bols -- Bolz -- v. 85. Bom -- Bon -- v. 86. Boo -- Bool -- v. 87. Boom -- Bor -- v. 88. Bos -- Botany-R -- v. 89. Botany-S -- Bouq -- v. 90. Bour -- Boyd -- v. 91. Boye -- Bram -- v. 92. Bran -- Brazil D -- v. 93. Brazil E -- Brer -- v. 94. Bres -- Brid -- v. 95. Brie -- British E -- v. 96. British F -- Brom -- v. 97. Bron -- Brov -- v. 98. Brow -- Brt -- v. 99. Bru -- Bryc -- v. 100. Bryd -- Budget-E -- v. 101. Budget F -- Building C -- v. 102. Building D -- Bulle -- v. 103. Bullf -- Burgf -- v. 104. Burgg -- Burrow, M -- v. 105. Burrow, N -- Buss -- v. 106. Bust -- Bz. ; v. 1. A -- Aben -- v. 2. Abeo -- Académie de F -- v. 3. Académie du G -- Achm -- v. 4. Achn -- Adams, D -- v. 5. Adams, E -- Ador -- v. 6. Adós -- Aeronautics-Ac -- v. 7. Aeronautics-Ad -- Aesoph -- v. 8. Aesopi -- Africa, So -- v. 9. Africa, Sp -- Agar -- v. 10. Agas -- Agriculture-Economics-F -- v. 11. Agriculture-Economics-G -- Agriculture-C [i.e. Agriculture (Place) C] -- v. 12. Agriculture-D [i.e. Agriculture (Place) D] -- Air-E -- v. 13. Air-F -- Alabam -- v. 14. Alaban -- Alcaraz, Em -- v. 15. Alcaraz, En -- Alexan, F -- v. 16. Alexan, G -- Aliens-H -- v. 17. Aliens-I -- Allied J -- v. 18. Allied K -- Alphabet, S -- v. 19. Alphabet, T -- Alz -- v. 20. Am -- America M -- v. 21. America-N -- American Fab -- v. 22. American Fac -- American Languages-Q -- v. 23. American Languages-R -- American Pio -- v. 24. American Pip -- Americans in L -- v. 25. Americans in M -- Amy -- v. 26. Amz -- Anderson, S -- v. 27. Anderson T -- Angle S -- v. 28. Angle T -- Annal -- v. 29. Annam -- Anthon -- v. 30. Anthoo -- Apar -- v. 31. Apas -- Aqueb -- v. 32. Aquec -- Arauco, C -- v. 33. Arauco D -- Architectural D -- v. 34. Architectural E -- Architecture, Ecclesiastical-F -- v. 35. Architecture, Ecclesiastical-G -- Arens -- v. 36. Arent -- Aristoc -- v. 37. Aristod -- Armitage, R -- v. 38. Armitage, S -- Army, R -- v. 39. Army, S -- Arres -- v. 40. Arret -- Art-Essays and Misc. G -- v. 41. Art-Essays and Misc. H -- Art Per [i.e. Art Pers]-- v. 42. Art, Peru -- Arz -- v. 43. As -- Assat -- v. 44. Assau -- Assz -- v. 45. Ast -- Athenaeum I -- v. 46. Athenaeum L -- Attention M -- v. 47. Attention N -- Auq -- v. 48. Aurauco D -- Austria B -- v. 49. Austria-C -- Authorship T -- v. 50. Authorship U -- Auy -- v. 51. Auz -- Az. ; Mode of access: Internet.

ÖZET: Hayvancılık, Çad'ın gelişmekte olan bir ülke olarak önemli bir ekonomik bileşenidir. Petrol sektöründen sonra genel olarak ülkenin GSYİH'sini paylaşmaktadır. Önemine rağmen, bu sektör bir takım kısıtlamalarla karşı karşıya. Bu kısıtlamaları araştırmak için, bu çalışma hayvancılık politikasını etkileyen faktörler araştırıldı. Çad'daki hayvancılık sektöründeki iyileşmenin, Hükümet tarafından halihazırda ele alınan politika kısıtlamalarından etkilendiği varsayılmaktadır. Bu çalışmanın belirli bir araştırma amacı Çad'da hayvancılık politikasının uygulamadaki zayıf yönlerini ve güçlü yönlerini analiz etmektir; hayvancılık politikası uygulamasını incelemenin yanı sıra. Bu araştırmada kullanılan yöntem hem niteliksel hem de nicelikseldir ve birincil ve ikincil olmak üzere iki veri kaynağına dayanır. Hayvancılık politikasının uygulanmasına ilişkin temel veriler, hayvancılık politikasının uygulanmasını etkileyen parametreleri belirlemek için hayvancılık ve paydaşlık bakanlığında çalışan kamu görevlilerine yönelik anketler kullanılarak bir anket kullanılarak toplanmıştır. Anket sonuçları, hem nicel hem de nitel analiz yöntemleri kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Çalışma, nicel betimsel analizin sonucuna dayandı. İstatistikler, Sosyal Bilimler için İstatistik Paketi (SPSS) programı ile yürütülen analiz sonrası demografik özelliklerin ve çalışma faktörlerinin bir özetini ve açıklamasını verir. Açık uçlu soruların sonucu nitel analizde tartışılmış ve cevaplayıcılardan her birinin en önemli üçünü seçmelerini istemek için ek sorular eklenmiştir. nitel analiz. Analizlerin sonuçları, araştırmanın nitel kısmından gelen yanıtlar, ilgili çalışmaların sonuçları ve araştırma bulgularına genel bir bakış açısı sağlamak için Çad Hayvancılık Dairesi'nden gelen hayvancılık istatistik verileriyle daha da doğrulanmıştır. Ortalama ve frekans dağılımı gibi tanımlayıcı istatistikler de kullanılmıştır. Bu araştırmanın ana bulguları, hayvancılık geliştirme politikasının dört faktörden etkilendiğini göstermiştir: hayvancılık verimlilik sistemleri; ekonomik çevre; kamu yönetimi ve yönetişim; ve insan kaynakları geliştirme politikasının yönetimi. Çalışmanın sonuçları, hayvancılık üretim sistemindeki faktörler arasında, hayvancılık politikasına etkileri bakımından, geniş üreme sistemleri bulunduğunu; hayvan sağlığı sorunları; ve veteriner eczanesi. Ekonomik ortamda, faktörler mezbaha modernizasyonunun eksikliğidir; hayvan pazarı sistemlerinin modernizasyonunun eksikliği; hayvan ticareti pazarlama sistemlerinin eksikliği; ve önceliklendirme hayvancılık bütçesi eksikliği. Kamu yönetiminde ve yönetişimde tanımlanan faktörler, önceliklendirme yapan hayvancılık politikasının eksikliğidir; uygunsuz proje yönetimi; stratejik yönetim kapasitesi eksikliği; ve kapasite geliştirme yönetiminin eksikliği. İnsan kaynaklarının geliştirilmesi ve politikasının yönetiminde, etkileyici faktörler, esas sistem ilkelerinin uygulanmasının eksikliğidir; yöneticilerin değerlendirilmemesi; ve eğitim ve uzatma eksikliği. Öneriler, proje yönetimini geliştirmek için politika oluşturma ve uygulamada yer alan kurumlar arasındaki işbirliğini güçlendirmek amacıyla dört faktör etrafında sunulmuştur; Hayvancılık politikasını, ekonomik perspektifi içeren kapsamlı bir yaklaşım gerektiren karmaşık bir sorun olarak ele almak; Gelişen bir sistem olarak hayvancılık politikası vizyonunu modernize etmek. Bu tavsiyeler, hayvancılık politikasının daha fazla uygulanmasını ilgilendirmekte ve merkezi hükümetin ülke genelinde izlenmesi mümkün olan hayvancılık politikasındaki stratejisine atıfta bulunmaktadır. Ancak, bu önerilerin hepsi çok önemlidir, ancak bazıları kısa, orta ve uzun vadede yapılmalıdır. İÇİNDEKİLER Sayfa numarası. TABLO LİSTESİ X ŞEKİL LİSTESİ XI KISALTMA LİSTESİ XII 1. ÇALIŞMA ARKA PLANI 1 1.1 Giriş 1 1.2 Araştırma Sorunu Beyanı 4 1.3 Çalışmanın Amacı 6 1.4 Araştırma Amaçı 7 1.5 Araştırma Soruları 7 1.6 Araştırma Hipotezi 8 1.7 Araştırma Tasarımı ve Metodolojisi 8 1.8 Çalışmanın Önemi 9 1.9 Tez Bölümlerinin Anahatları 9 2. LITERATÜR TARAMASI, POLİTİKA UYGULAMASI VE KAVRAMSAL ÇERÇEVE 11 2.1 Giriş 11 2.2 Politika Tanımları 12 2.3 POLİTİKA UYGULAMASI 14 2.3.1 Açıklayıcı Modeller 16 2.3.2 Açıklayıcı Modellerin Uygulanması 16 2.3.3 Reçeteli Modeller 17 2.3.3.1 Reçete Modellerinin Uygulanması 18 2.3.4 Rasyonel Yaklaşım 22 2.3.5 Politik yaklaşım 24 2.3.6 Uygulama teorisi: Sistem Modeli 25 2.3.7 AŞAĞIDAN YUKARIYA VE YUKARIDAN AŞAĞIYA YAKLAŞIMLAR 27 2.3.7.1 Yukarıdan Aşağıya Yaklaşım 28 2.3.7.2 Aşağıdan Yukarıya Yaklaşım 28 2.3.7.3 Aşağıdan Yukarıya ve Yukarıdan Aşağıya Yaklaşımların Sentezi 29 2.3.8 BAŞARILI VE BAŞARISIZ UYGULAMA NEDİR? 34 2.4 KAVRAMSAL ÇERÇEVE: HAYVANCILIK UYGULAMASININ POLİTİKASI 36 2.4.1 POLİTİKA UYGULAMASINDAN ETKİLEYEN FAKTÖRLER 36 2.5 HAYVANCILIK POLİTİKASININ UYGULAMASINI ETKİLEYEN FAKTÖRLER 42 2.5.1 Hayvancılık Verimlilik Sistemleri 42 2.5.1.1 Geniş Kapsamlı Islah Sistemi 42 2.5.1.2 Hayvan Sağlığı Sorunları 43 2.5.1.3 Veteriner Eczacılığı 43 2.5.2 Ekonomik Çevre 44 2.5.2.1 Hayvancılık Pazarlama Sistemleri 44 2.5.2.2 Hayvancılık Pazar Sistemleri 44 2.5.2.3 Olumlu Tedbir Eksikliği 45 2.5.3 Kamu Yönetimi ve Yönetişim 45 2.5.3.1 Politika Yönetimi 45 2.5.3.2 Kamu Yönetimi 47 2.5.4 İnsan Kaynakları Geliştirme Yönetimi 48 2.5.4.1 Eğitim ve yazışmalı 49 2.5.4.2 Araştırma Hizmetleri 49 2.5.5 Hayvancılık Gelişme Planlarının Uygulanması 50 2.5.6 Stratejik Planlama için Devlet Koordinasyonu 52 2.5.7 Uygulayıcıların Politikaya Yönelik Tutumları 54 2.5.8 Hayvancılık Planlama ve Bilgi Hizmetleri Livestock 56 2.5.8.1 Hayvancılık Teknolojisinin Sağlanması 57 2.6 KAVRAMSAL ÇERÇEVE 57 2.6.1 KAVRAMSAL ÇERÇEVE ELEMANLARI 58 2.6.1.1 Politika İçeriği 58 2.6.1.2 Uygulama İçeriği 59 2.6.1.3 Uygulayıcıların Politikaya Taahhüdü 60 2.6.1.4 Politika Uygulama Kapasitesi 61 2.6.1.5 Uygulama İçin Müşterilere ve Koalisyonlara Destek 62 2.6.2 Kavramsal Çerçeve 65 2.7 ÖZET VE SONUÇ 66 3. ÇAD'IN SOSYO EKONOMİK ORTAMINA GENEL BAKIŞ VE LIVESTOCK POLİTİKA SİSTEMİ 68 3.1 Giriş 68 3.2 Ülke Profili 68 3.2.1 Kolonizasyon ve Bağımsız 69 3.2.2 Yönetim Seviyesi 70 3.2.3 Devlet ve Ssiyasi Durum 71 3.2.4 Doğal Kısıtlamalar 71 3.3.1 Sosyo-demografik ve Ekonomik Özellikle 72 3.3.2 Sosyoekonomik Kısıtlamalara Genel Bakış 73 3.3.3 Siyasi Kısıtlamalar 77 3.3.4 Çad'da Hayvancılık Sektörü Arka Planı 79 3.5 PASTORAL KALKINMA BAKANLIĞI ORGANİZASYONU ÇAD VE HAYVAN ÜRETİMİ 81 3.5.1 Hayvancılıkta Kurumsal Politika Çerçevesi 82 3.5.2. Hayvancılık Kurumsal Bağlantıları ve Ortaklığı 83 3.5.3 Hayvancılık Kuruluş Kuruluşları 83 3.5.4 Özel Sektör Kuruluşları 84 3.5.5 Sivil Toplum Kuruluşları 85 3.6 ENDÜSTRİYELLEŞME VE ÜRÜNÜN SINIRLARI İŞLEME 85 3.6.1 Mezbahaneler ve Kesim Alanları 86 3.6.2 İşlenmiş Ürün Faaliyetleri 86 3.6.3 Süt İşleme Üniteleri 88 3.6.4 Dönüşüm Birimleri 88 3.6.5 İşlenmiş Ürün Çeşitleri 88 3.7 ÖZET VE SONUÇ 89 4. METODOLOJİ METHODOLOGY 90 4.1 Giriş 90 4.2 Çalışmanın amacı 90 4.3 ARAŞTIRMA TASARIMI VE ANALİTİK MODELİ 91 4.3.1 Araştırma Tasarımı ve Metodoloji 91 4.4 Nüfus 94 4.5 Örnek 94 4.6 Anket Aracı 95 4.7 Veri Toplama 96 4.7.1 Pilot Testi 96 4.7.2 Gerçek Anket/Veri Toplama 97 4.8 Analiz 97 4.9 ÖZET VE SONUÇ 98 5. ÇALIŞMA VERİLERİNİN TOPLANMASI ANALİZİ 99 5.1 Giriş 99 5.2 Numunenin Demografik Profili 99 5.3 Çalışma Faktörleri 100 5.3.1 Hayvancılık Verimlilik Sistemi Faktörleri 101 5.3.2 Ekonomik Çevre Faktörleri 102 5.3.3 Kamu Yönetimi ve Yönetişim 103 5.3.4 İnsan Kaynakları Geliştirme ve Politika Yönetimi 104 5.3.5 En Önemli Güçlü Noktalar ve Zayıf Noktalar 106 5.3.5.1 Hayvancılık Gelişme Planlarının Uygulanmasının Güçlü ve Zayıf Noktaları 106 5.3.5.2 Hayvancılık Stratejik Planlaması için Devlet Koordinasyonunda Güçlü Noktalar ve Zayıf Noktalar 107 5.3.5.3 Uygulayıcıların Hayvancılık Politikasına Karşı Tutumlarında Güçlü Noktalar ve Zayıf Noktalar 108 5.4 ÖZET VE SONUÇ 109 6. BULGULARIN TARTIŞMASI, ÇALIŞMA ÖZETİ, SONUÇ VE ÖNERİLER 110 6.1 Giriş 110 6.2 Bulguların Özeti 110 6.2.1 Hayvancılık Verimlilik Sistemi Faktörü 110 6.2.2 Ekonomik Çevre Faktörü 111 6.2.3 Kamu Yönetimi ve Yönetişim Faktörü 111 6.2.4 İnsan Kaynakları Geliştirme ve Politika Faktörü Yönetimi 111 6.2.5 En Önemli Güçlü Noktalar ve Zayıf Noktalar 112 6.3 Bulguların Tartışılması 114 6.3.1 Hayvancılık verimlilik sistemi faktörleri ile ilişkileri ve geliştirilmiş uygulama hizmetlerinin üç bileşeni 114 6.3.2 Ekonomik çevre faktörleri ile geliştirilmiş uygulama hizmetlerinin üç bileşeni arasındaki ilişki 115 6.3.3 Kamu yönetimi ve yönetişim ve gelişmiş uygulama hizmetlerinin üç bileşeni arasındaki ilişki 118 6.3.4 İnsan kaynakları geliştirme politikasının yönetimi ile iyileştirilmiş uygulama hizmetlerinin üç bileşeni arasındaki ilişki 120 6.3.5 Araştırma Sorusuna Cevap 122 6.4 Öğütleme 143 6.5 Sonuç 161 Kaynakça 162 Ekler 173 Anket 190 --- ABSTRACT: Livestock is an important economic component of Chad as a developing country. It shares in overall country's GDP after the oil sector. In spite of its importance, this sector is facing a number of constraints. In order to explore those constraints, this study was investigated the factors that impact the livestock policy. It is hypothesized that the improvement of the livestock sector in Chad is affected by the policy constraints, already being addressed by the Government. A specified research objective of this study is to analyse the weaknesses and the strengths of livestock policy implementation in Chad; as well as to examine livestock policy implementation. The method used in this research both qualitative and quantitative and is based on two sources of data, primary and secondary. The primary data on the implementation of livestock policy were collected by using a survey through the questionnaires addressed to the public officers working at the Ministry of livestock and stakeholders to identify the parameters influencing the implementation of livestock policy. The survey results were analysed by using both quantitative and qualitative methods of analyses. The study relied on the result of the quantitative descriptive analysis. The statistics give a summary and description of the demographic aspects and the study factors after analysis run with the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) programme. The result of open-ended questions was discussed in qualitative analysis and additional questions were added to ask the respondents to select the most significant top three in each part of the three statement-questions each has five strong points and five weak points also were discussed in qualitative analysis. The results of the analyses were further substantiated by the responses from the qualitative part of the survey, by the results of related studies, and by livestock statistical data from the Department of the livestock of Chad to provide a general perspective on the research findings. Descriptive statistics such as mean and frequency distribution were also utilized. The main findings of this research showed that livestock development policy is influenced by four factors: livestock productivity systems; economic environment; public administration and Governance; and management of human resources development policy. The results of the study revealed that among the livestock production system factors in terms of their impact on livestock policy, there are extensive breeding systems; animal health issues; and veterinary pharmacy. In the economic environment, factors are lack of modernization of slaughterhouse; lack of modernization of livestock market systems; lack of livestock trade marketing systems; and lack of livestock budget prioritizing. In public administration and governance identified factors are lack of livestock policy prioritizing; inappropriate project management; lack of strategic management capacity; and lack of administration of the capacity building. And in management of human resources development and policy, the influencing factors are lack of application of the merit system principles; lack of evaluation of administrators; and lack of training and extension. The recommendations are presented around four factors, to improve project management strengthen the collaboration among the agencies involved in policy making and implementation; to address livestock policy as a complex problem which needs a comprehensive approach embracing economic perspective; to modernize vision of livestock policy as an evolving system. These recommendations concern the further implementation of livestock policy and refer to the strategy of the central government in livestock policy that could be pursued across the country. However, all of these recommendations are so important but some of them to be done in short, medium and long term. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. LIST OF TABLES X LIST OF FIGURES XI LIST OF ABBREVIATION XII 1. STUDY BACKGROUND 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Statement of Research Problem 4 1.3 Purpose of the Study 6 1.4 Research Objective 7 1.5 Research Questions 7 1.6 Research Hypothesis 8 1.7 Research Design and Methodology 8 1.8 Significance of the Study 9 1.9 Outline of Thesis Chapters 9 2. LITERATURE REVIEW, POLICY IMPLEMENTATION AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Policy Definitions 12 2.3 POLICY IMPLEMENTATION 14 2.3.1 Descriptive Models 16 2.3.2 Implication of Descriptive Models 16 2.3.3 Prescriptive Models 17 2.3.3.1 Implication of Prescriptive Models 18 2.3.4 Rational Approach 22 2.3.5 Political approach 24 2.3.6 Implementation theory: System Model 25 2.3.7 TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP APPROACHES 27 2.3.7.1 Top Down Approach 28 2.3.7.2 Bottom Up Approach 28 2.3.7.3 Synthesis of Bottom-up and Top-down Approaches 29 2.3.8 WHAT IS SUCCESSFUL AND FAILED IMPLEMENTATION? 34 2.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: POLICY IMPLEMENTATION OF LIVESTOCK POLICY 36 2.4.1 FACTORS THAT AFFECT POLICY IMPLEMENTATION 36 2.5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE IMPLEMENTATION OF LIVESTOCK POLICY 42 2.5.1 Livestock Productivity Systems 42 2.5.1.1 Extensive Breedıng System 42 2.5.1.2 Animal Health Issues 43 2.5.1.3 Veterinary Pharmacy 43 2.5.2 Economic Environment 44 2.5.2.1 Livestock Marketing Systems 44 2.5.2.2 Livestock Market Systems 44 2.5.2.3 Lack of Positive Measures 45 2.5.3 Public Administration and Governance 45 2.5.3.1 Policy Administration 45 2.5.3.2 Public Governance 47 2.5.4 Management of Human Resources Development 48 2.5.4.1 Training and Extension 49 2.5.4.2 Research Services 49 2.5.5 Implementation of Livestock Development Plans 50 2.5.6 Government Coordination for Strategic Planning 52 2.5.7 Attitudes of Implementers Towards the Policy 54 2.5.8 Livestock Planning and Information Services 56 2.5.8.1 Provision of Livestock Technology 57 2.6 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 57 2.6.1 ELEMENTS OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 58 2.6.1.1 Policy Content 58 2.6.1.2 Context of Implementation 59 2.6.1.3 Commitment of Implementers to the Policy 60 2.6.1.4 Capacity to Implement Policy 61 2.6.1.5 Support of Clients and Coalitions for Implementation 62 2.6.2 Conceptual Framework 65 2.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 66 3. OVERVIEW OF SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT OF CHAD AND LIVESTOCK POLICY SYSTEM 68 3.1 Introduction 68 3.2 Country Profile 68 3.2.1 Colonization and Independent 69 3.2.2 Administration level 70 3.2.3 Government and political situation 71 3.2.4 Natural Constraints 71 3.3.1 Socio-demographic and Economic Characteristics 72 3.3.2 Overview of Socioeconomic Constraints 73 3.3.3 Political Constraints 77 3.3.4 Livestock Sector Background in Chad 79 3.5 ORGANISATION OF MINISTRY OF PASTORAL DEVELOPMENT AND ANIMAL PRODUCTION OF CHAD 81 3.5.1 Institutional Policy Framework of Livestock 82 3.5.2. Livestock Institutional Linkages and Partnership 83 3.5.3 Livestock Associative Institutions 83 3.5.4 Private Sector Institutions 84 3.5.5 Non-Governmental Organisations 85 3.6 CONSTRAINTS OF INDUSTRIALISATION AND PRODUCT PROCESSING 85 3.6.1 Slaughterhouses and Slaughter Areas 86 3.6.2 Processed Product Activities 86 3.6.3 Milk Processing Units 88 3.6.4 Transformation Units 88 3.6.5 Processed Product Varieties 88 3.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 89 4. METHODOLOGY 90 4.1 Introduction 90 4.2 Purpose of the study 90 4.3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND ANALYTICAL MODEL 91 4.3.1 Research Design and Methodology 91 4.4 Population 94 4.5 Sample 94 4.6 Survey Instrument 95 4.7 Data Collection 96 4.7.1 Pilot Test 96 4.7.2 Actual Survey/Data Collection 97 4.8 Analysis 97 4.9 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 98 5. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA COLLECTION OF THE STUDY 99 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 The Demographic Profile of Sample 99 5.3 Study Factors 100 5.3.1 Livestock Productivity System Factors 101 5.3.2 Economic Environment Factors 102 5.3.3 Public Administration and Governance 103 5.3.4 Management of Human Resources Development and Policy 104 5.3.5 The Most Significant Strong Points and Weak Points 106 5.3.5.1 Strong and weak points of Implementation of Livestock Development Plans 106 5.3.5.2 Strong Points and Weak point in Government Coordination for Livestock Strategic Planning 107 5.3.5.3 Strong Points and Weak point in Attitudes of implementers toward the Livestock policy 108 5.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 109 6. DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS, SUMMARY OF THE STUDY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 110 6.1 Introduction 110 6.2 Summary of Findings 110 6.2.1 Livestock Productivity System Factor 110 6.2.2 Economic Environment Factor 111 6.2.3 Public Administration and Governance Factor 111 6.2.4 Management of Human Resources Development and Policy Factor 111 6.2.5 The Most Significant Strong Points and Weak Points 112 6.3 Discussion of Findings 114 6.3.1 Relationship between livestock productivity system factors and the three components of improved implementation services 114 6.3.2 Relationship between economic environment factors and the three components of improved implementation services 115 6.3.3 Relationship between public administration and governance and the three components of improved implementation services 118 6.3.4 Relationship between management of human resources development policy and the three components of improved implementation services 120 6.3.5 Answer to Research Question 122 6.4 Recommendation 143 6.5 Conclusion 161 Bibliography 162 Appendices 173 Questionnaires 190

Obwohl seit der Einführung des Penicillins ein wirksames Medikament gegen Streptokokken der Lancefield Gruppe A (GAS) existiert, bei welchem bislang keine Resistenzen beschrieben wurden, bleiben GAS-Infektionen auch heute noch ein großes gesundheitspolitisches Problem, das sowohl die Morbidität als auch die Mortalität der Menschen weltweit beeinflusst. GAS können ein breites Spektrum an Erkrankungen beim Menschen verursachen. Dazu zählen nicht nur unkomplizierte Racheninfektionen mit und ohne Scharlach oder Hautinfektionen wie Erysipel oder Impetigo, sondern auch invasive sowie Folgeerkrankungen. 1928 wurde als Typ-spezifische, Antikörperbildung-induzierende Substanz das M-Protein beschrieben, welches durch das emm-Gen kodiert und seither zur Beschreibung der Epidemiologie von GAS verwendet wird. Eine der Hauptfunktionen des auf der Oberfläche von GAS verankerten M-Proteins besteht darin, die Phagozytose durch polymorphkernige Leukozyten zu verhindern, was zu den wichtigsten Abwehrmechanismen von Infektionen mit GAS gezählt wird. Obwohl seit einigen Jahrzehnten große Anstrengungen unternommen wurden, bleibt ein sicherer und effektiver Impfstoff bisher ein unerreichtes Ziel. In der hier vorliegenden Studie wurde, anhand der über den Zeitraum vom 11.03.2006 bis 19.05.2012 am Universitätsklinikum Freiburg gesammelten Daten und Isolaten, die regionale Epidemiologie von Infektionen pädiatrischer Patienten durch GAS retrospektiv untersucht. Mit insgesamt 566 Isolaten und zugehörigen klinischen Daten stellt diese Studie die bisher größte unizentrische epidemiologische Untersuchung von pädiatrischen Erkrankungen mit emm-Typisierung von GAS in Deutschland dar. Dabei wurde besonders auf Zusammenhänge zwischen den molekularepidemiologischen Daten, basierend auf der emm-Typisierung, und den anonymisierten klinischen Informationen eingegangen. In die Kohorte konnten insgesamt 566 Fälle eingeschlossen werden. Bei 405 Fällen wurde eine Racheninfektion festgestellt, wovon bei wiederum 75 Fällen zusätzlich die Diagnose Scharlach gestellt wurde, 34 Kinder stellten sich mit einer Hautinfektion vor, 21 mit einer akuten Otitis media, 19 mit einer anogenitalen Infektion, acht mit einer invasiven Infektion und zwei mit einer Harnwegsinfektion. Als Kolonisation durch GAS ohne Krankheitswert wurden 77 Fälle gewertet, davon 48 mit pharyngealer Kolonisation. In der molekularepidemiologischen Untersuchung konnten drei neue emm-subtypen entdeckt werden, welche als emm29.13, emm36.7 sowie emm75.5 erstbeschrieben und deren Sequenzen in der Datenbank des CDC hinterlegt wurden. Über die gesamte Kohorte hinweg wurde Typ emm12 bei 19% aller Fälle gefunden und lag somit am häufigsten vor, gefolgt von emm1 und emm4 mit je 14% sowie emm28 und emm89 mit je 11%. Bei Betrachtung der emm-Cluster zeigte sich E4 mit 31% am häufigsten, danach folgten Cluster A-C4 mit 19%, A-C3 und E1 mit jeweils 14%. Unter den 405 Fällen mit GAS-Tonsillopharyngitis lag emm12 mit knapp 20% am häufigsten vor, gefolgt von emm4 mit 15%, emm1 mit 14%, emm89 mit 13% und emm28 sowie emm3 mit je 9%. Hinsichtlich der Cluster wurde E4 dort mit knapp 30% am häufigsten festgestellt, gefolgt von A-C4 mit 20%, E1 mit 15%und A-C3 mit 14%. In der vorliegenden Studie konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich die emm-Typ- sowie die emm-Cluster-Epidemiologie in Abhängigkeit von der klinischen Manifestation unterscheidet. Auch wenn sich die Verteilungen grundsätzlich ähnelten, traten emm4 bzw. die Cluster A-C5 und E1 bei Patienten mit Tonsillopharyngitis mit Scharlach auch nach Bonferroni-Korrektur signifikant häufiger auf als bei solchen mit Tonsillopharyngitis ohne Scharlach. Erste Hinweise hierfür wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit in einer Vorabauswertung zu dieser Kohorte 2013 erstmals beschrieben und durch Ergebnisse folgender, internationaler Studien gestützt. Bei anogenitalen Infektionen wurde in knapp 80% der Fälle Cluster E4 und in 58% emm28 festgestellt, so-dass hier ein deutlich eingeengtes Erregerspektrum vorlag. Verglichen zu allen Fällen mit Tonsillopharyngitis wurden bei anogenitaler Infektion Typ emm28 und Cluster E4 signifikant häufiger isoliert. Für Hautinfektionen konnte kein signifikanter Unterschied der emm-Typ-Verteilung im Vergleich zu Racheninfektionen insgesamt gefunden werden. Es zeigte sich jedoch Cluster E4 signifikant häufiger bei Patienten mit einer Hautinfektion als bei solchen mit Scharlach. Insgesamt zeigte sich im konkreten Vergleich zu einer französischen Studie eine weitgehende Übereinstimmung hinsichtlich der Epidemiologie der emm-Typen und -Cluster, jedoch auch einzelne Differenzen. Diese Unterschiede waren signifikant für emm6 und emm22, ebenso wie für Cluster M6. Weiterhin bestätigte unter anderen die Studie von d´Humieres et al. die Häufung von emm4 bei Scharlach-Patienten, was die Aussage der vorgelegten Ergebnisse unter-streicht. Weiterhin wurde zur Untersuchung der longitudinalen Entwicklung der emm-Typen und emm-Cluster die Verteilung des Zeitraumes vom 01.04.2006 und 31.03.2007 mit dem vom 01.05.2011 bis 30.04.2012 verglichen. Zumindest für den vergleichsweise kurzen zeitlichen Abstand konnten nach Adjustierung keine signifikanten Veränderungen der Epidemiologie hinsichtlich einzelner emm-Typen bzw. -Cluster beobachtet werden. In bisherigen Studien wurde die Pathogenität eines Stammes meist anhand des klinischen Erscheinungsbildes bestimmt. In dieser Studie wurde weiterführend untersucht, inwiefern sich einzelne emm-Typen bzw. emm-Cluster auch in quantitativ messbaren Parametern wie u.a. dem C-reaktiven Protein (CRP) sowie der Leukozytenzahl im Blut unterscheiden. Bei Patienten mit Tonsillopharyngitis zeigte sich lediglich Cluster E4 signifikant häufiger mit einem CRP-Wert über 35 mg/l assoziiert. Für die Leukozytenzahl war ein solcher Zusammenhang dagegen nicht nachweisbar. Da die verwendeten Analysen jedoch Störfaktoren unterlagen und ein Kausalzusammenhang zwischen der Pathogenität des Erregers und der Auslenkung der ge-nannten Parameter im Rahmen des Studiendesigns nicht bewiesen werden konnte, lassen diese Ergebnisse keine abschließende Beurteilung zu. Der bereits entwickelte 30-valente Impfstoff zeigte anhand der enthaltenen M-Antigene eine gute Übereinstimmung mit den in dieser Studie gefundenen emm-Typen. Dabei waren die Antigene von 19 der 25 in dieser Studie registrierten emm-Typen in dem Impfstoff enthalten, was jedoch unter Berücksichtigung der Kreuzreaktivitäts-Hypothese für emm-Cluster zu einem Deckungsgrad von 99,8% aller untersuchten Fälle (565 von 566) führt. Insgesamt erwies sich der unizentrische Charakter der hier vorgelegten Studie in gewisser Hinsicht als Vorteil gegenüber multizentrischen Studien, da hierdurch zu bestimmten Fragen Informationen ohne den Einfluss regionaler Besonderheiten ausgewertet werden konnten. Inwiefern regionale Prävalenzen einzelner emm-Typen oder deren Pathogenitätspotential ent-scheidend für die Epidemiologie insbesondere invasiver Infektionen sind, kann anhand dieser Studie nicht abschließend beurteilt werden. Zur näheren Untersuchung dieses Sachverhaltes wären weiterführende Studien in größerem Maßstab notwendig. Zusammenfassend wurde mit dieser Arbeit eine umfassende epidemiologische Untersuchung anhand der molekularepidemiologischen Erregeranalyse unter Einschluss klinischer Aspekte an einer großen pädiatrischen Kohorte durchgeführt. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse leisten einen Beitrag zur Aufklärung der regionalen wie auch internationalen Epidemiologie von GAS und bieten wichtige Grundlagen sowie Ansätze für nachfolgende Untersuchungen, insbesondere für die Impfstoffentwicklung gegen GAS.:1 Einleitung 7 2 Theoretische Grundlagen 8 2.1 Epidemiologie 8 2.2 Taxonomie 10 2.3 Infektionspathologie 11 2.4 Aufbau des M-Proteins 14 2.5 Die Bedeutung des M-Proteins 16 2.6 emm-Genetik 18 2.7 Therapie und Prophylaxe 20 3 Ziele der Studie 22 4 Patienten, Material und Methoden 23 4.1 Mikrobiologische Isolate und klinische Daten 23 4.1.1 "Klinische Krankheitsbilder" 25 4.1.2 Modifizierter Centor-Score 26 4.1.3 Grunderkrankungen 27 4.1.4 Paraklinik 27 4.2 Geräte und Materialien 29 4.2.1 Geräte und Hilfsmittel 29 4.2.2 Verbrauchsmaterialien 30 4.2.3 Molekulare Diagnostiksysteme 31 4.2.4 Primer für PCR und Sequenzierung 31 4.2.5 Medien und Lösungen 31 4.3 Mikrobiologische Methoden 32 4.3.1 Mikrobiologische Proben 32 4.3.2 Kultur von GAS 32 4.3.3 Latex-Agglutinationstest auf Gruppe A Antigen 33 4.3.4 Kryokonservierung der Isolate 34 4.4 Molekulargenetische Methoden 35 4.4.1 DNA-Isolierung 35 4.4.2 Photometrische Bestimmung der DNS-Konzentration und Einstellung 36 4.4.3 Polymerase-Kettenreaktion (PCR) 37 4.4.4 Agarose-Gelelektrophorese 37 4.4.5 DNA Sequenzierung 39 4.4.6 Sequenz-basierte Typisierung 41 4.5 Statistische Auswertung 42 5 Ergebnisse 43 5.1 Ausgewertete mikrobiologische Proben und retrospektive Daten 43 5.2 Analyse der Kohorte 45 5.2.1 Analyse der Altersverteilung 45 5.2.2 Analyse der Geschlechtsverteilung 48 5.2.3 Analyse der saisonalen Verteilung 49 5.2.4 Analyse der klinischen Symptome 51 5.2.5 Analyse von Vorerkrankungen und Versorgungsform 55 5.3 Laborbefunde 58 5.3.1 Analyse der semiquantitativen Wachstumsdichte der Abstrich-Kulturen 58 5.3.2 Blutparameter: C-Reaktives Protein (CRP) 59 5.3.3 Blutparameter: Leukozytenzahl 59 5.4 Molekulare Epidemiologie des emm-Typs 60 5.5 Erstbeschreibung neuer emm-Subtypen 60 5.6 emm-Typ- bzw. Cluster-Verteilung und klinische Manifestation 61 5.6.1 emm-Verteilung bei Tonsillopharyngitis 61 5.6.2 emm-Verteilung bei akuter Otitis media (AOM) 63 5.6.3 emm-Verteilung bei Hautinfektionen 64 5.6.4 emm-Verteilung bei anogenitalen Infektionen 65 5.6.5 emm-Verteilung bei invasiven Infektionen 68 5.6.6 emm-Verteilung bei asymptomatischer Rachen-Kolonisierung 68 5.7 Analyse der Altersverteilung für emm-Typen und -Cluster 70 5.8 Infektionsparameter und Korrelation zur molekularen Epidemiologie 71 5.8.1 Temperatur: 71 5.8.2 CRP: 72 5.8.3 Leukozytenzahl: 73 5.9 Patienten mit wiederholten Vorstellungen 73 5.9.1 Antibiotische Therapie 75 5.10 Resistenzlage 76 5.11 Analyse der molekularen Epidemiologie über der Zeit 78 6 Diskussion 80 6.1 Vorbemerkung 80 6.2 Kohorte 81 6.2.1 Alter 81 6.2.2 Geschlecht 82 6.2.3 Jahreszeit 82 6.2.4 Vorerkrankungen 83 6.2.5 Klinische Symptome 84 6.2.6 Diagnostischer Wert der semiquantitativen Wachstumsdichte 85 6.2.7 Rezidive 85 6.3 emm-Typ und –Cluster-Epidemiologie 86 6.3.1 emm-Typen und -Cluster bei Tonsillopharyngitis 86 6.3.2 emm-Typen und –Cluster bei Anogenitalinfektionen 86 6.3.3 emm-Typen und -Cluster bei invasiven Infektionen 87 6.3.4 emm-Typ und -Cluster-Epidemiologie im Vergleich zu anderen Studien 87 6.3.5 Longitudinale Betrachtung der emm-Typ-Epidemiologie 91 6.3.6 Vergleich der emm-Typen und Cluster-hinsichtlich des Alters der Patienten 92 6.3.7 emm-Typen und -Cluster hinsichtlich Infektionsparametern 92 6.3.8 Deckungsgrad mit 30-valentem M-Protein-basiertem GAS-Impfstoff 95 6.3.9 emm-Typ / -Cluster – Antibiotika-Resistenz 96 6.4 Ausblick 97 7 Zusammenfassung 98 8 Summary 101 9 Anhang 104 10 Abbildungsverzeichnis 112 11 Tabellenverzeichnis 114 12 Abkürzungsverzeichnis 116 13 Literaturverzeichnis 118 14 Anlage 1 127 15 Anlage 2 129 16 Danksagung 131 ; Although - since the introduction of penicillin - there has been an effective drug against strep-tococci of Lancefield Group A (GAS), in which no resistance has been described so far, GAS infections remain a major healthcare policy problem, which affects both morbidity and mortality of people worldwide. GAS can cause a wide range of disorders in humans. These include un-complicated pharyngeal infections with and without scarlet fever as well as skin infections such as erysipelas or impetigo but also invasive as well as secondary complications. In 1928, the M-protein encoded by the emm gene was described as a type-specific, antibody -inducing substance and has since been used to characterize the epidemiology of GAS. One of the main functions of the M protein, anchored on the surface of GAS, is to evade phagocytosis by polymorphonuclear leukocytes, which is one of the most important defense mechanisms against infections by GAS. Although major efforts have been made for several decades, a safe and effective vaccine remains an unreached goal. In this study, the regional epidemiology of infections of pediatric patients by GAS was retro-spectively investigated on the basis of data and isolates collected from 11.03.2006 to 19.05.2012 at the University Medical Center in Freiburg. With a total of 566 isolates and asso-ciated clinical data, the present study provides the largest uni-centric epidemiological study of pediatric diseases with emm-typing of GAS so far in Germany. Particular attention was paid to associations between molecular epidemiology, based on emm-typing, and anonymized clinical data. The total cohort included 566 cases, thereof 405 cases of pharyngeal infection, 75 of which were additionally diagnosed with scarlet fever, 34 children presented with a skin infection, 21 with an acute otitis media, 19 with an anogenital infection, eight with an invasive infection and two with an urinary tract infection. In 77 cases colonization by GAS was estimated as having no clinical relevance of those 48 isolates were isolated from pharyngeal swabs. In the molecular investigation, three new emm subtypes were discovered which were first de-scribed as emm29.13, emm36.7 as well as emm75.5. These sequences were entered into the database of the CDC. Over the entire cohort, emm12 was found in 19% of all cases and was thus the most frequent, followed by emm1 and emm4, with 14% each, emm28 and emm89, with 11% each. When considering emm-clusters, E4 was the most frequent with 31%, followed by cluster A-C4 with 19%, A-C3 and E1 with 14%. Among the 405 cases with GAS-related pharyngeal infection, emm12 was the most common with almost 20%, followed by emm4 with 15%, emm1 with 14%, emm89 with 13% and emm28 as well as emm3 with 9% each. With respect to the clus-ters, E4 was found to be the most common with around 30%, followed by A-C4 with 20%, E1 with 15% and A-C3 with 14%. In the present study it was shown that emm-types as well as emm-clusters differed depending on the clinical manifestation. Although the distributions were basically similar, emm4 as well as clusters A-C5 and E1 were significantly more common in patients with tonsillopharyngitis and scarlet fever, even after Bonferroni correction, than those with tonsillopharyngitis but without the diagnosis of scarlet fever. These findings were first described in a preliminary evaluation of this cohort in 2013 and supported by the results of consecutively published international stud-ies. In anogenital infections, cluster E4 was found in almost 80% and emm28 in 58%, indicat-ing a clearly narrowed spectrum. Compared to cases with tonsillopharygitis, emm28 and clus-ter E4 were significantly more frequently isolated in anogenital infections. For skin infections no significant difference could be found in the emm-distribution compared to tonsillopharyngi-tis. However, cluster E4 was found to be significantly more common in patients with a skin infection than in those with scarlet fever. Overall, in a direct comparison to a French study, there was a wide agreement regarding the epidemiology of emm-types and -clusters, but also some differences. These differences were significant for emm6, emm22, as well as for cluster M6. Furthermore, among others, the study by d´Humieres et al. confirmed the accumulation of emm4 in scarlet fever patients, which un-derlines the statement of the presented results. Furthermore, in order to investigate the longitudinal development of emm-types and emm-clusters, the distribution in the period from 01.04.2006 to 31.03.2007 was compared to that from 01.05.2011 to 30.04.2012. At least for the comparatively short period, no significant changes in the epidemiology of individual emm-types or -clusters could have been observed after adjusting the p-values. In previous studies, the pathogenicity of a strain was determined by its association to the clini-cal picture. In addition, this study investigated the extent to which individual emm-types or emm-clusters also differed in quantitatively measurable parameters such as the C-reactive protein (CRP) and the leukocyte count in the blood. In cases of tonsillopharyngitis, cluster E4 was found significantly associated with a CRP value above 35 mg/l. For the leukocyte count such a difference was not detectable. However, since the values were subject to confounding factors, a causal link between pathogenicity of certain emm-types and the deflection of the mentioned parameters could not be proved within the framework of this study. Therefore, these results do not allow to draw final conclusions. The existing 30-valent M-protein based vaccine would show a good agreement with the corre-sponding emm-types of the cohort used here. The antigens of 19 of the 25 different emm-types registered in this study were included in the vaccination model, which corresponds to a vaccine coverage of 99.8% (565 of 566) of all strains examined here, if cross-reactivity of GAS strains within an emm-cluster was taken into consideration. Overall, the uni-centric character of the study presented here provided in certain aspects an advantage over multi-centric studies, as differences and similarities between different clinical pictures, excluding regional differences as well as comprehensive clinical information on the cases, could be emphasized. The extent to which regional prevalence of individual emm-types or their pathogenicity potential are decisive for the epidemiology of invasive infections could not be conclusively assessed by this study. For a closer look at this issue, further studies on a larger scale would be necessary. In summary, this work presents a comprehensive epidemiological investigation on molecular epidemiologic pathogen analysis including clinical aspects in a large pediatric cohort. The find-ings contribute to the elucidation of the regional an international epidemiology of GAS and pro-vide important basics as well as approaches for subsequent investigations, especially for vac-cine development against GAS.:1 Einleitung 7 2 Theoretische Grundlagen 8 2.1 Epidemiologie 8 2.2 Taxonomie 10 2.3 Infektionspathologie 11 2.4 Aufbau des M-Proteins 14 2.5 Die Bedeutung des M-Proteins 16 2.6 emm-Genetik 18 2.7 Therapie und Prophylaxe 20 3 Ziele der Studie 22 4 Patienten, Material und Methoden 23 4.1 Mikrobiologische Isolate und klinische Daten 23 4.1.1 "Klinische Krankheitsbilder" 25 4.1.2 Modifizierter Centor-Score 26 4.1.3 Grunderkrankungen 27 4.1.4 Paraklinik 27 4.2 Geräte und Materialien 29 4.2.1 Geräte und Hilfsmittel 29 4.2.2 Verbrauchsmaterialien 30 4.2.3 Molekulare Diagnostiksysteme 31 4.2.4 Primer für PCR und Sequenzierung 31 4.2.5 Medien und Lösungen 31 4.3 Mikrobiologische Methoden 32 4.3.1 Mikrobiologische Proben 32 4.3.2 Kultur von GAS 32 4.3.3 Latex-Agglutinationstest auf Gruppe A Antigen 33 4.3.4 Kryokonservierung der Isolate 34 4.4 Molekulargenetische Methoden 35 4.4.1 DNA-Isolierung 35 4.4.2 Photometrische Bestimmung der DNS-Konzentration und Einstellung 36 4.4.3 Polymerase-Kettenreaktion (PCR) 37 4.4.4 Agarose-Gelelektrophorese 37 4.4.5 DNA Sequenzierung 39 4.4.6 Sequenz-basierte Typisierung 41 4.5 Statistische Auswertung 42 5 Ergebnisse 43 5.1 Ausgewertete mikrobiologische Proben und retrospektive Daten 43 5.2 Analyse der Kohorte 45 5.2.1 Analyse der Altersverteilung 45 5.2.2 Analyse der Geschlechtsverteilung 48 5.2.3 Analyse der saisonalen Verteilung 49 5.2.4 Analyse der klinischen Symptome 51 5.2.5 Analyse von Vorerkrankungen und Versorgungsform 55 5.3 Laborbefunde 58 5.3.1 Analyse der semiquantitativen Wachstumsdichte der Abstrich-Kulturen 58 5.3.2 Blutparameter: C-Reaktives Protein (CRP) 59 5.3.3 Blutparameter: Leukozytenzahl 59 5.4 Molekulare Epidemiologie des emm-Typs 60 5.5 Erstbeschreibung neuer emm-Subtypen 60 5.6 emm-Typ- bzw. Cluster-Verteilung und klinische Manifestation 61 5.6.1 emm-Verteilung bei Tonsillopharyngitis 61 5.6.2 emm-Verteilung bei akuter Otitis media (AOM) 63 5.6.3 emm-Verteilung bei Hautinfektionen 64 5.6.4 emm-Verteilung bei anogenitalen Infektionen 65 5.6.5 emm-Verteilung bei invasiven Infektionen 68 5.6.6 emm-Verteilung bei asymptomatischer Rachen-Kolonisierung 68 5.7 Analyse der Altersverteilung für emm-Typen und -Cluster 70 5.8 Infektionsparameter und Korrelation zur molekularen Epidemiologie 71 5.8.1 Temperatur: 71 5.8.2 CRP: 72 5.8.3 Leukozytenzahl: 73 5.9 Patienten mit wiederholten Vorstellungen 73 5.9.1 Antibiotische Therapie 75 5.10 Resistenzlage 76 5.11 Analyse der molekularen Epidemiologie über der Zeit 78 6 Diskussion 80 6.1 Vorbemerkung 80 6.2 Kohorte 81 6.2.1 Alter 81 6.2.2 Geschlecht 82 6.2.3 Jahreszeit 82 6.2.4 Vorerkrankungen 83 6.2.5 Klinische Symptome 84 6.2.6 Diagnostischer Wert der semiquantitativen Wachstumsdichte 85 6.2.7 Rezidive 85 6.3 emm-Typ und –Cluster-Epidemiologie 86 6.3.1 emm-Typen und -Cluster bei Tonsillopharyngitis 86 6.3.2 emm-Typen und –Cluster bei Anogenitalinfektionen 86 6.3.3 emm-Typen und -Cluster bei invasiven Infektionen 87 6.3.4 emm-Typ und -Cluster-Epidemiologie im Vergleich zu anderen Studien 87 6.3.5 Longitudinale Betrachtung der emm-Typ-Epidemiologie 91 6.3.6 Vergleich der emm-Typen und Cluster-hinsichtlich des Alters der Patienten 92 6.3.7 emm-Typen und -Cluster hinsichtlich Infektionsparametern 92 6.3.8 Deckungsgrad mit 30-valentem M-Protein-basiertem GAS-Impfstoff 95 6.3.9 emm-Typ / -Cluster – Antibiotika-Resistenz 96 6.4 Ausblick 97 7 Zusammenfassung 98 8 Summary 101 9 Anhang 104 10 Abbildungsverzeichnis 112 11 Tabellenverzeichnis 114 12 Abkürzungsverzeichnis 116 13 Literaturverzeichnis 118 14 Anlage 1 127 15 Anlage 2 129 16 Danksagung 131

El Ecuador, como país intercultural y plurinacional recoge en su memoria social todas las costumbres, mitos, leyendas y tradiciones que transforman en direccionamientos para el desarrollo del país en todas sus áreas, ya que compila en el Derecho Consuetudinario de los pueblos originarios del Ecuador su forma de actuar, ya hoy en día gracias a la revolución ciudadana, lo podemos socializar y aplicar, mismos que deben ser cumplidos en forma coercitiva porque ese es su modo de vida, que con toda seguridad lo manifiesto, es la base para llegar al Sumak Kausay. El presente trabajo explica en resumen la historia de nuestros pueblos originarios, mismos que para llegar a la vida republicana y la colonización han sufrido un proceso de expansionismo y dominación incaica – española, en su debido orden, para luego entrar en la capitulación por las grandes empresas de conquistas, organizadas técnicamente en Centro América y expandirse hacia América del Sur e ingresar al proceso de formación del amerindio, que en el tránsito de Inca a indio y campesino, ha sufrido discriminaciones en todo sentido, llegando a ocultar toda la sabiduría ancestral que luego fue catalogado como actividades paganas en contra de Dios de acuerdo a la Biblia que nos trajeron del viejo mundo (Vera, 1989) En este proceso, el amerindio pasa por un período de tamizaje en donde se cumplió con el gran objetivo de la conquista; que desaparezca de una vez por todas los rasgos culturales de la cosmología andina, que el runa y la huarmi tengan vergüenza de sus ancestros, sus etnias y culturas; de este modo, terminaron con su vestimenta, culto, creencias, mitos, leyendas y tradiciones (Derecho Consuetudinario). Conscientes estamos que toda la memoria ancestral se resume en el Derecho Consuetudinario de los pueblos originarios del Ecuador, pero no se puede desarrollar, preservar y socializar sino existe un proceso de enseñanza básica para que sea transmitida de generación en generación, caso contrario, toda esa riqueza cultural quedaría en el olvido. Razón por la cual los maestros cumplen un papel importante en el proceso de enseñanza aprendizaje, ya que son los responsables del conocimiento histórico real del antes y el después de las comunidades y pueblos del Ecuador. Para que un docente pueda transmitir los conocimientos ancestrales inéditos a las futuras generaciones, debe dominar la norma y la sociología jurídica ya que nos da la sabiduría y todas las herramientas para hacerlo con eficiencia, efectividad, y eficacia de todos los conocimientos ancestrales en prácticas diarias; es así como, en la vida republicana, hasta la década de los 90 los educadores no podían realizar prácticas educativas reales en forma clara, transparente y cierta, porque los contenidos científicos se basaban sólo en conocimientos extranjeros o currículos de otros países y en el mejor de los casos al catecismo. Es la Sociología Jurídica, la filosofía y el Derecho Consuetudinario especialmente la danza el teatro y los juegos populares las únicas actividades que de una u otra manera utilizan legalmente los educadores para realizar el proceso de enseñanza aprendizaje con saberes ancestrales plasmados en mensajes a través de corografías, obras teatrales y juegos lúdicos o populares. Tanto en el Ecuador como en el resto de América Latina, existe un nuevo escenario político en la cual la: multi-pluri-inter-culturalidad está ganando espacio y legitimidad. Esta nueva coyuntura incluye el reconocimiento por parte de los estados sobre la diversidad étnica y cultural, así también la necesidad de reconocer derechos específicos, colectivos y de la naturaleza, lo que algunos autores llaman el nuevo "constitucionalismo multicultural", que está enfocado en una nueva forma de solución de conflictos, ya sea por la conciliación, mediación, arbitraje, pero principalmente la justicia indígena (Van, 2000) y su relación con la ciudadanía "étnica" "cultural". (Montoya, 2002). Ratifican la aplicación de los Métodos Alternativos y Solución de Conflictos (MASC) mismos que están amparados por la Constitución ecuatoriana en su Artículo 190. Como bien sabemos, a diferencia de otros países de la región, en el Ecuador este reconocimiento oficial es de mayor jerarquía; reflejo y resultado de luchas y demandas del movimiento indígena, de sus procesos de fortalecimiento identitario como actores sociales, políticos y culturales y de su cuestionamiento de los modelos existentes de ciudadanía, democracia, estado y nación liderados por los movimientos indígenas en sus diversas organizaciones de la costa, sierra y oriente. Las demandas de reconocimiento cultural de los pueblos indígenas y pueblos originarios del Ecuador, han puesto en duda la vigencia de un sistema jurídico mono cultural, aun teniendo en cuenta el escenario del multiculturalismo constitucional que recorrió las reformas constitucionales latinoamericanas desde la aprobación del Convenio No. 169 por parte de la Organización Internacional de Trabajo en 1989. En el Ecuador este proceso es primordial y de sumo interés, razón por la cual con la aprobación del referéndum de la nueva Constitución en el 2008, en la que se define como Estado Plurinacional de Derechos, reconociendo la coexistencia de una diversidad de sistemas jurídicos. Los países de la región, como Bolivia y Venezuela, entre otros, han transitado procesos similares, cuestionando la permanencia del denominado monismo jurídico quien plantea que las crisis son una precondición para el surgimiento de nuevas teorías y referentes para la solución de conflictos. El reconocimiento por parte del Estado de los sistemas jurídicos, no implica que las autoridades de los pueblos y nacionalidades indígenas tengan el objetivo de crear algo nuevo, sino el reconocimiento de una realidad histórica de ejercicio de derechos consuetudinarios, que en el marco de la construcción colonial de la dominación estatal fueron invisibilizados, negados y perseguidos, como prácticas al margen de la ley. El pluralismo jurídico no es una "alternativa" del derecho, sino un proceso de construcción de otras formas jurídicas que identifiquen al derecho con los sectores mayoritarios de la sociedad, y de respuestas institucionales a procesos de transición de una sociedad marcada por la colonialidad hacia una construcción social y estatal de carácter intercultural y plurinacional, en donde se compila todas las costumbres, tradiciones, leyendas y mitos ancestrales. Tal como lo plantea (Coutinho, 1990), "un pluralismo de sujetos colectivos fundado en un nuevo desafío: construir una nueva hegemonía que contemple el equilibrio entre el predominio de la voluntad general, sin negar el pluralismo de los intereses particulares". En los últimos cuatro años de vigencia de la nueva carta magna del Ecuador, la coexistencia de la justicia ordinaria y la justicia indígena no ha estado exenta de conflictos respecto de los alcances de la jurisdicción de la administración y justicia indígena, de la adaptación de procesos a los derechos humanos, de los mecanismos de coordinación entre autoridades estatales y autoridades indígenas, entre otros. En ciertos casos se alcanzan situaciones en las que las autoridades comunitarias fueran sometidas a la justicia ordinaria por exceder su jurisdicción (Ref. Caso La Cocha), así como fuertes reclamos por parte de las autoridades comunitarias respecto de la intervención no solicitada de operadores de justicia al margen de sus derechos colectivos. Razón por la cual sociólogos, filósofos e investigadores para dar jerarquía a toda la memoria, filosofía ancestral y la cosmovisión andina, enfocan como Derecho Consuetudinario para llegar al cumplimiento de la armonía comunitaria. ; Ecuador, as an intercultural and multinational country in its social memory, collects all customs, myths, legends and traditions that become the country's means for development in all areas, as compiled in the customary law of the indigenous peoples of Ecuador that nowadays, thanks to the citizen's revolution we can socialize and apply, these should executed as an imperative because that is their way of life, which I can surely say, is the foundation to achieve the Smac Kausay. In this paper we explain in brief the history of our people, whom to reach the republican status and colonization have undergone a process of expansionism and Inca- Spanish domination, thereafter entering the capitulation by the big companies conquests, technically organized in Central America to expand into South America and enter the process of formation of the Amerindian going from Inca to Indian and peasant, has suffered discrimination in every way; thus hiding all ancient wisdom since it was listed as pagan activities against God and the Bible that were brought from the old continent. In this process the Amerindian goes through a period of screening where he meets the great object of conquest, disappearing once and for all the cultural traits of the Andean cosmology, the run and huarmi are ashamed of their ancestors, their ethnicities and cultures; in this way the screening process finished with their costume, religion, beliefs, myths, legends and traditions. It is known that all the ancestral memory is summed up in the customary law of the indigenous peoples of Ecuador, however, it is not possible for it to develop, preserve and socialize, unless through a process of basic education to be transmitted from generation to generation; otherwise, all this cultural richness would be forgotten. This is why teachers play an important role in the teaching-learning process since they are responsible for the actual historical knowledge before and after the communities and people of Ecuador. For a teacher to transmit to future generations unpublished ancestral knowledge, you must 22 master the art, as only art gives us the wisdom and all the tools to do it with efficiency, effectiveness, and expertise of all ancient knowledge in daily practices; the reason being is that during the republican period until the 90s, educators could not make real educational practices in clear, transparent and authentic ways, because scientific contents are based only on foreign expertise or curricula of other countries. Performing arts are especially theater and dance popular games the only activities that one way or another legally used educators for the teaching-learning process with ancestral knowledge embodied in messages through choreographies, plays and recreational or popular games. Both in Ecuador and in the rest of Latin America, there is a new political scenario in which the multi- -inter-culture is gaining ground and legitimacy. This new bias includes the States recognition over ethnic and cultural diversity, and also the need to recognize personal and common rights, as well as those of nature, for which some authors call the new "multicultural constitutionalism." Van Cott (2000) and its relation to the cultural ethnicity. Montoya (2002). In relation to what is the Alternative Dispute Resolution mean (ADR) which are covered by the Constitution in Article 190. As we know, unlike other countries in the region, in Ecuador this official recognition is of major prominence; reflection and result of struggles and demands of the indigenous movement in the processes of strengthening identity and social, political and cultural actors and their questioning of existing models of citizenship; democracy, state and nation led by indigenous movements in their various organizations through the coast, mountains and east. The demand for cultural recognition of indigenous peoples and indigenous people of Ecuador have questioned the validity of a mono cultural legal system, even taking into account the stage of the constitutional multiculturalism that swept Latin American constitutional reforms since the adoption of Convention No. 169 by the International Labor Organization in 1989. In Ecuador this process is essential and of great interest, thus with the approval of the referendum on the new Constitution in 2008, which is defined as multinational State of Rights, recognizing the coexistence of a variety of legal systems in it. The countries of the region such as Bolivia, Venezuela and others, have passed similar processes, questioning the permanence of the so-called legal monism who argues that crises are a precondition for the emergence of new theories and relating to conflict resolution. The recognition by the State of legal systems does not imply that the authorities of the indigenous people and nationalities have the goal of creating something new, but the recognition of a historical reality exercise of customary rights, which under the colonial domination were invisible, denied and persecuted, and practices outside the law. We do not consider the legal pluralism as an "alternative" use of law but as a process of construction of other legal forms identifying the law with the majority sectors of society and institutional responses to processes of transition from a society marked by colonialism moving towards a social state characterized as intercultural and multinational where all the customs, traditions, legends and ancient myths are compiled. As stated by Coutinho (1990), "a pluralism of collective subjects based on a new challenge: to build a new hegemony that considers the balance between the dominance of the general will, without denying the pluralism of individual interests". In the last 4 years of validity of the new Constitution of Ecuador, the coexistence of ordinary justice and indigenous justice, has not been free of conflict over the scope of the jurisdiction of the administration and indigenous justice, the adaptation of cases to human rights, the mechanisms of coordination between state authorities and indigenous leaders, among others. Reaching in some cases, situations where the Community authorities were subjected to regular courts to "exceed" its jurisdiction (Ref. Case La Cocha) and strong complaints from the Community authorities regarding the unsolicited intervention of justice operators regardless of their collective rights. 24 In this research all cultural features of the main communities and indigenous nationalities of the three regions of Ecuador are also being analyzed, which have gone unnoticed in the social context and in the best case, taken as isolated activities, put in practice or socialized in the main festivities of the people. This is the reason for us as educators for basic education, to give all the memory hierarchy, ancient philosophy and the Andean world we take it as customary law to take into action with the community may it be as a voluntary act or coercively. Part of the study of this paper is also to extent the responsibility to the State-Government, to maintain all the values and principles of the ancestral memory and cultural heritage of the indigenous people of Ecuador in an intact and unchanged way, to transmit to future generations; goal which you can achieve only with the education and training of teachers in different areas, but mainly in performing arts ; as well, on how to handle: customs, traditions, ethnic and folk legends, which is part of the standard of living of the indigenous people and peasants, and serves as a relevant issue to the development of basic education curriculum. This research with proposed development schedule was fulfilling the objectives, analyzing the extent to which cultures of indigenous people of Ecuador are present in the teaching of basic education, teacher training, and the level of positioning in the absence the arts, the presence of popular traditions in the curriculum and teacher preparation for teaching and its impact on society, and only then get to know the cultures of indigenous people of Ecuador in basic education. A study on the contribution of arts and popular traditions in the curriculum of basic education to achieve the implementation of the common system of legal pluralism with coarse principles based on Andean philosophy. The methodology, as an instrument for the operationalization of variables and objectives of the research is based on the paradigm of functionalism and constructivism, with field research (indigenous community leaders, members of councils, cultural promoters, educational authorities, elders of the different communities , basic education teachers) as descriptive, bibliographic and documentary scientific contributions in the areas of study, collecting data with the technique of the survey, interview and observation, and tools such as questionnaire. Interview guide and observation sheets, which allowed establishing the relationships between variables and approving the alternative hypothesis. Thus affirm that in our country, knowledge of the cultures of the indigenous people of Ecuador have not been involved, but rather have been marginalized and forgotten, where only basic education devoted to teaching general knowledge and specified in the area of mathematics and language, which is why there is a lack of 80% of the current population, and especially of teachers, both Ecuadorian reality as ethnicities and cultures of our ancestors.

Esta tesis doctoral se ha realizado dentro del marco de un acuerdo de co-tutela entre la Universidad de Zaragoza (Universidad de origen), la Universidad de Calabria (Universidad anfitriona) y la Facultad de Ciencias y Tecnología de la Universidad NOVA de Lisboa (FCT NOVA) (Universidad anfitriona). El trabajo de investigación se ha llevado a cabo dentro del programa de Doctorado en Ingeniería de Membranas Erasmus Mundus (EUDIME), (FPA 2011-0014), financiado por la Unión Europea. La tesis se centró principalmente en el uso de la técnica de electrohilado para producir diferentes tipos de membranas que puedan ser utilizadas en distintas aplicaciones biomédicas. Se sintetizaron y produjeron nanopartículas orgánicas e inorgánicas para ser utilizadas como rellenos o como portadores (sistema de administración de fármacos), así como membranas nanofibrosas electrohiladas. Este trabajo se llevó a cabo en el Instituto de Nanociencia de Aragón (INA), específicamente en el grupo de Nanostructured Films and Particles (NFP) bajo la supervisión de la profesora Silvia Irusta y la Dra. Gracia Mendoza. Una parte importante de la caracterización físico-química se realizó en el INA. En la Universidad de Calabria se trabajó bajo la supervisión de la Dra. Loredana de Bartolo en el Instituto de Tecnología de Membranas (ITM). Allí se utilizaron técnicas específicas tanto para la caracterización como para estudiar diferentes señales biológicas producidas por las membranas sintetizadas, bajo la supervisión. Por otro lado, la movilidad llevada a cabo en la Facultad de Ciencias y Tecnología (FCT NOVA) de la Universidade NOVA (FCT NOVA) bajo la supervisión de la profesora Ana Isabel Aguiar-Ricardo, permitió realizar una caracterización completa de dos membranas asimétricas siguiendo diferentes Normas Internacionales que establecen diferentes ensayos a realizar en apósitos primarios utilizados en heridas. El desarrollo de nuevos scaffolds cargados con proteínas morfogenéticas o antibióticos es de gran interés en el campo de la ingeniería de tejidos óseos. Scaffolds electrohilados con una microporosidad mejorada puede ser beneficioso para mejorar la viabilidad celular debido a que una alta porosidad junto a la presencia de microporos puede proporcionar un entorno tridimensional (3D) que no solamente facilita la siembra y difusión celular sino también proporciona una mejor difusión de los nutrientes y residuos a través del scaffolds. La adición de cerámica de fosfato de calcio ha sido ampliamente investigada para fabricar scaffolds altamente porosos para la ingeniería de tejidos óseos debido a que presentan una composición muy similar al hueso, incluyendo excelentes propiedades de biocompatibilidad, osteoinductivas y osteoconductoras. Partículas cargadas con proteínas morfogenéticas de hueso distribuidas homogéneamente en el scaffolds podrían asegurar una liberación continua del factor de crecimiento proporcionando de esta forma las señales bioquímicas necesarias para la reparación y regeneración ósea. Los scaffolds cargados con antibióticos pueden proporcionar una liberación sostenida del fármaco en el sitio de interés, así como el mantenimiento de propiedades osteogénicas mejoradas para la regeneración exitosa del hueso. Evitando de esta forma que se alcancen niveles de toxicidad o niveles ineficaces en la zona de interés, así como la aparición de efectos secundarios indeseados en los pacientes que provocan un rechazo a los tratamientos prolongados de fármacos por vía sistemática (vía oral e intravenosa). Otra aplicación biomédica interesante de las membranas electrohiladas es la fabricación de apósitos inteligentes eficientes para el tratamiento de heridas. Para lograr una curación rápida de la herida es necesario desarrollar membranas apropiadas con poros interconectados capaces de prevenir la deshidratación rápida y la penetración de bacterias. Para mantener un ambiente húmedo en el lecho de la herida se necesita una alta capacidad de absorción y una adecuada transmisión de vapor de agua. Además, si la membrana electrohilada presenta propiedades bactericidas facilitará el proceso de curación. El objetivo principal de esta tesis fue el desarrollo mediante electrohilado de membranas fibrosas con las características apropiadas para ser utilizadas en la ingeniería de tejidos óseos o como apósito para heridas. En los Capítulos II al V se plantean una serie de objetivos específicos con el fin de cumplir el objetivo principal. Este documento de tesis se dividió en las siguientes secciones:  CAPÍTULO I, corresponde a la introducción general donde se describen los conceptos de biomateriales, scaffolds, ingeniería de tejidos y el objetivo principal de los sistemas de liberación de fármacos. Así como, la clasificación de los biomateriales y la ingeniería de tejidos según el origen de los materiales. Además se ponen de manifiesto todos los factores que deben tenerse en cuenta para desarrollar y aplicar adecuadamente los apósitos para heridas. Se mencionaron las diferentes técnicas utilizadas en la literatura haciendo énfasis en el uso de electrohilado y electropulverización para producir scaffolds o membranas para su uso en la ingeniería del tejido óseo y como apósitos para heridas.  CAPÍTULO II, se enfoca en el desarrollo y mejora de andamios 3D capaces de promover una eficiente regeneración ósea junto con la liberación de antibióticos dirigidos para prevenir la colonización de bacterias. El objetivo de este trabajo fue sintetizar y caracterizar un sistema de liberación de fármacos que consiste en nanofibras electrohiladas de policaprolactona (PCL) decoradas con partículas de poli (ácido láctico-coglicólico) (PLGA) cargadas con rifampicina (RFP). Este material debe promover la reparación ósea evitando el deterioro del scaffolds provocado por una infección. Se realizó la evaluación in vitro de la capacidad bactericida del material electrohilado sintetizado contra bacterias Gram positivas (Staphylococcus aureus) y Gram negativas (Escherichia coli), así como su citocompatibilidad en cultivos 3D con osteoblastos humanos. Estos resultados se enviaron a la Revista de farmacia "International Journal of Pharmaceuitics" para su publicación en formato de artículo y está bajo revisión.  CAPÍTULO III, se describe la síntesis y caracterización de membranas con estructura de núcleo-envoltura de PCL y acetato de polivinilo (PVAc) obtenidas por electrohilado. Las fibras se cargaron con nanopartículas de hidroxiapatita sintética (HAn) para aumentar la bioactividad de los materiales. Los scaffolds desarrollados se trataron con ablación láser para crear características topográficas deseadas a nivel micrométrico con el objetivo de favorecer la adhesión y crecimiento celular. Todas las membranas obtenidas presentaron una estructura de poros tridimensionalmente interconectados y el tratamiento con láser provocó un aumento en la viabilidad y densidad celular. Además, el aumento en la biocompatibilidad de los scaffolds sugiere que los microporos pequeños favorecen la adhesión y proliferación celular. Estos resultados fueron publicados en el artículo titulado "Laser-treated electrospun fibers loaded with nano-hydroxyapatite for bone tissue engineering". Javier Aragon, Nuria Navascues, Gracia Mendoza, Silvia Irusta. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 525,112–122, 2017. DOI:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.04.022.  CAPÍTULO IV, se refiere al desarrollo de un scaffold electrohilado compuesto por fibras con estructura de núcleo-cubierta de PCL o PCL/PVAc cargado con HAn sintética. Estas fibras se decoraron con partículas de PLGA cargadas con proteína morfogenética ósea 2 (BMP2) mediante el uso simultaneo de electrohilado coaxial y electropulverización. El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar las propiedades estructurales y físico-químicas así como el proceso de biodegradación de los nuevos scaffolds desarrollados y su capacidad para abordar las características arquitectónicas, bioquímicas y funcionales del tejido óseo. Para esto, se probó la bioactividad del scaffold mediante el cultivo de osteoblastos humanos sobre ellos y se monitoreo de la viabilidad celular durante 4 semanas. Se evaluó la actividad osteogénica in vitro de las células sembradas sobre los scaffolds determinando la actividad de la fosfatasa alcalina (ALP) y la expresión de osteocalcina (OCN) y osteopontina (OPN) como proteínas osteogénicas. Estos resultados fueron publicados en el artículo titulado "Polymeric electrospun scaffolds for bone morphogenetic protein 2 delivery in bone tissue engineering". Javier Aragón, Simona Salerno, Loredana De Bartolo, Silvia Irusta and Gracia Mendoza. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 531 (2018) 126–137. DOI:10.1016/j.jcis.2018.07.029.  El CAPÍTULO V, describe la síntesis de un apósito antimicrobiano para heridas, con una resistencia mecánica adecuada que es capaz de absorber exudados y evitar la deshidratación rápida de una herida. Se prepararon membranas asimétricas de PCL/PVAc cargadas con carvacrol (CRV) mediante el uso simultáneo de electrohilado y electropulverización. Las membranas constan de dos capas; la primera es una capa de PCL electrohilado; la segunda, una lámina de PVAc que estaría en contacto con la piel liberando a su vez el compuesto antimicrobiano. Se demostró que el uso de diferentes disolventes pueden dar lugar a la obtención de diferentes morfologías de la capa PVAc-CRV. Los valores obtenidos de elongación máxima de las membranas antes de romperse son adecuados para ser utilizados como apósitos para heridas ya que están en el mismo rango reportado de elongaciones en la piel humana. Las membranas presentan una tasa óptima de Transmisión de vapor de agua (WVTR) con valores que se encuentran en el rango requerido para mantener un buen balance entre humedad y pérdida de agua en la herida. En la primera semana, se liberó más del 60 % del CRV cargado, mientras que después de tres semanas, las membranas liberaron entre el 85 y el 100 % del CRV cargado mediante la contribución de un proceso de difusión de tipo Fickiano y la relajación delas cadenas poliméricas. Las membranas sintetizadas son candidatas potenciales para ser utilizadas como apósitos para heridas. El manuscrito que resume estos resultados se envió a la revista "Materials Science and Engineering C" y está bajo revisión (MSEC_2018_3013).  CAPÍTULO VI, resume las conclusiones generales del trabajo de tesis.  APÉNDICE 1, describe las principales técnicas de caracterización y los métodos para evaluar diferentes propiedades en función de las posibles aplicaciones.  APÉNDICE 2, resume los artículos publicados y la participación en foros científicos durante el período de tesis. 1 The current Doctoral Thesis work has been performed under a co-supervision agreement between University of Zaragoza (Home University), University of Calabria (Host University) and Faculty of Sciences and Technology of the NOVA University of Lisbon (FCT NOVA) (Host University). This research has been carried out inside the Erasmus Mundus Doctorate in Membrane Engineering program (EUDIME), (FPA 2011-0014), funded by the European Union. This thesis focused mainly on the use of the electrospinning technique to produce different kind of membranes for biomedical applications. In particular, it described the synthesis and production of inorganic and organic nanoparticles to be used as fillers or as carriers (drug delivery system) as well as the production of electrospun nanofibrous membranes. This work was carried out within the Institute of Nanoscience of Aragon (INA), specifically in the Nanostructured Films and Particles (NFP) group under the supervision of the Professor Silvia Irusta and Dr Gracia Mendoza. Also an important part of the physico-chemical characterization was done at INA. The study of different biological signals and the use of specific techniques for membrane characterization were acquired at the University of Calabria under the supervision of Dr. Loredana De Bartolo in the Institute on Membrane Technology of the National Research Council of Italy (ITM-CNR). On the other hand, the mobility carried out at the Faculty of Sciences and Technology (FCT NOVA) of Universidade NOVA (FCT NOVA) under the supervision of Professor Ana Isabel Aguiar-Ricardo, allowed a total characterization of two asymmetric membranes following different International Standards to accomplish testing for primary wound dressing. The development of novel membranes loaded with morphogenetic proteins or antibiotic are of great interest in the field of bone tissue engineering. To promote the cellular viability and extracellular matrix production, electrospun membranes with enhanced porosity and micro-scale pores could be beneficial since increased porosity and pore size can provide a three-dimensional (3D) environment that not only facilitates cell seeding/diffusion but also provides better diffusion of nutrients and waste throughout the membranes. The addition of calcium phosphate ceramics has been extensively investigated to fabricate highly porous membranes to bone tissue engineering due to their close similar composition of bone, including excellent biocompatibility, osteoinductive and osteoconductive properties. A homogeneous distribution of the bone morphogenetic protein-loaded particles along the entire membrane could be ensuring a continuous release of the growth factor to provide the necessary biochemical cues for bone repair and regeneration. Antibiotic-loaded membranes may provide drug targeted and sustained release, avoiding the long-term oral and intravenous systematic multidrug administration, which implies toxic side effects, low delivery to the target site and low patient adherence to the treatment. Therefore, membranes loaded with antibiotics can overcome the drawbacks of the traditional therapy sustaining enhanced osteogenic properties for the successful regeneration of the bone. Another interesting biomedical application of electrospun membranes is the fabrication of efficient smart dressings for the treatment of wounds. A rapid wound healing requires developing appropriate membranes with interconnected pores that allow the oxygen diffusion and transport of metabolic waste, as well as an adequate pore size to prevent rapid dehydration and bacteria penetration. A high absorption capacity and adequate water vapor transmission will be necessary to keep a moist environment in the wound bed. Besides, if the electrospun membrane has some bactericidal properties will be better for the healing process. The main goal of this thesis was the development of fibrous membranes by electrospinning with the appropriate characteristics to be used in bone tissue engineering or as wound dressing materials. To achieve this target, several specific objectives were defined, which are described in Chapters II to V. The thesis was divided in the following sections: CHAPTER I, is an introduction where the concepts of biomaterials, scaffolds and tissue engineering and the main target of drug delivery systems are described. The chapter includes the classification of biomaterials according to the origin of the materials and tissue engineering is also described as well as all the factors that must be taken into account to develop and properly apply a wound dressing are discussed. Different kind of techniques used in the literature to produce scaffolds or membranes for bone tissue engineering and wound dressings are mentioned, focusing on the use of electrospinning and electrospray to produce them. CHAPTER II, focuses on the development of enhanced 3D membranes able to promote efficient bone regeneration together with targeted antibiotic release to prevent bacteria colonization. The aim of this work was to synthesize and characterize a drug delivery system consisting of polycaprolactone (PCL) electrospun nanofibers decorated with rifampicin (RFP) loaded into poly(lactic-coglicolic acid) (PLGA) particles. This material would promote bone repair avoiding the impairment of the membrane mediated by infection. The bactericidal ability of the synthesized electrospun material was assessed In vitro against gram positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and gram negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria, as well as its cytocompatibility in human osteoblasts 3D cultures. These results are included in the accepted article entitled "Composite scaffold obtained by electro-hydrodynamic technique for infection prevention and treatment in bone repair". Javier Aragon, Sergio Feoli, Gracia Mendoza, Silvia Irusta. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. CHAPTER III, describes the synthesis and characterization of core-shell membranes of PCL and polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) obtained by electrospinning. The fibers were loaded with synthetic hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (HAn) to increase the bioactivity of the materials. The prepared membranes were then treated by laser ablation to create desired microscale topographical features in order to favor cell adhesion and growth. All prepared membranes exhibited a three-dimensional network structure with interconnected pores; the laser treatment has modified the structural characteristics of the membrane causing an increase the cell viability and cell density. The materials biocompatibility is affected by the structural properties of the membranes, indeed smaller micropore sizes favor cell adhesion and proliferation. These results are published in the article entitled "Laser-treated electrospun fibers loaded with nano-hydroxyapatite for bone tissue engineering". Javier Aragon, Nuria Navascues, Gracia Mendoza, Silvia Irusta. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 525,112–122, 2017. DOI:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.04.022. CHAPTER IV, refers to the development of a composite electrospun membrane of PCL or PCL/PVAc core–shell fibers loaded with synthetic HAn. These fibers were decorated with bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) loaded in/into PLGA particles via simultaneous electrospraying and coaxial electrospinning. The aim of this study was to evaluate the structural and physico-chemical properties and biodegradation processes of the newly developed membranes assessing their ability to address the architectural, biochemical, and functional features of bone tissue. For this purpose, the membrane bioactivity was tested by culturing human osteoblasts on the membranes and by monitoring cell viability up to 4 weeks. The In vitro osteogenic activity of cells seeded onto the membranes was evaluated by assessing alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and the expression of osteogenic proteins osteocalcin (OCN) and osteopontin (OPN). These results are published in the article "Polymeric electrospun scaffolds for bone morphogenetic protein 2 delivery in bone tissue engineering". Javier Aragón, Simona Salerno, Loredana De Bartolo, Silvia Irusta and Gracia Mendoza. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 531 (2018) 126–137. DOI:10.1016/j.jcis.2018.07.029. CHAPTER V, describes the synthesis of an antimicrobial wound dressing material, with appropriate mechanical resistance avoiding rapid dehydration and absorbing exudates. PCL/PVAc asymmetric membranes loaded with carvacrol (CRV) were prepared by electrospinning and electrospraying simultaneously. The membranes consist of two layers: the first is an electrospun PCL sheet, the second a PVAc sheet that would be in contact with the skin releasing the antimicrobial compound. The use of different solvents results in different morphologies for the PVAc-CRV layer. The membranes exhibit mechanical properties with strain to failure values that are in the range of human skin, being adequate to be deposited over a wound surface. The samples present Water Vapor Transmission (WVTR) values in the required range to keep good moisture balance with water loss from the wound at the optimal rate. In the first week, more than 60 % of the loaded CRV was released while after three weeks membranes released between 85 to 100 % of the loaded CRV through a Fickian diffusion and diffusion due to polymer relaxation. The synthesized membranes are potential candidates to be used for wound dressing applications. The manuscript summing up these results has been submitted to a scientific journal and is currently under review. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, summarizes the conclusions of the thesis work. APPENDIX 1, describes the main characterization techniques and the methods to evaluate different properties according to the possible applications. APPENDIX 2, summarizes the articles published and the participation in scientific forums during the thesis period.

Este trabajo analiza la manera cómo España construyó, a finales del siglo XIX, una imagen de nación moderna fundamentada en la conciencia de un pasado glorioso, el del descubrimiento de América o del Nuevo Mundo. La atención se enfoca en el análisis de la participación del país ibérico en las Exposiciones Históricas (EH) que tuvieron lugar en Madrid, en 1892, precisamente en el marco de la celebración del IV centenario de dicho suceso. Evento de gran trascendencia para la coyuntura política española de fin de siglo, caracterizada por la profunda crisis que había dejado la pérdida de supremacía sobre la mayor parte de sus antiguas colonias en el continente americano. No es gratuito, pues, que en este contexto se asista a una especie de competencia, entre tres naciones, por conseguir el predominio de la conmemoración. Italia, por ser la cuna de Cristóbal Colón; España, por haber apoyado de forma decida el proyecto colombino; y, Estados Unidos, por considerarse heredera directa de la civilización occidental. En las tres, los eventos expositivos constituirán el eje central de la celebración. Para el caso de España, tras una primera iniciativa, en 1888, de celebrar una exposición de carácter universal -como la inaugurada ese mismo año en Barcelona-, en 1891 se decanta por la realización de dos, de carácter histórico e internacional, "detenidas en el siglo XVI". A diferencia de las ferias mundiales, donde primó el sello arquitectónico que le otorgó cada nación, en las EH a cada nación le será asignada una o varias salas dentro del Palacio de Biblioteca y Museos Nacionales, inaugurado para la ocasión. El piso principal albergará a la Histórico-Europea (HE), proyectada con el propósito de mostrar los testimonios históricos y de las artes provenientes de aquella época y conservados por los países europeos. La planta baja, acogerá a la Histórico- Americana (HA), que busca dar cuenta del estado de desarrollo alcanzado por los pueblos americanos al momento de la llegada de los españoles. De esta manera, las EH se convierten en las más importantes de su género, no sólo en ámbito español de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX sino de todo el orbe. La primera, por reunir objetos de carácter histórico y artístico de varias naciones europeas, pero especialmente de la anfitriona; la segunda, por exponer por primera vez, y a la vista de Europa y el mundo, el panorama de las culturas prehispánicas conocidas hasta ese entonces, algo que no habían logrado ni siquiera los Congresos Internacionales de Americanistas. En ellas, pues, se hace imposible separar lo histórico, cultural, artístico o científico, de sus implicaciones políticas. No es de extrañar, pues, que España hiciera un despliegue de la gran riqueza de su patrimonio histórico-artístico y de material americano, acumulando durante siglos por la casa real y la nobleza; los museos, archivos y bibliotecas; la iglesia; y, los coleccionistas privados, en su mayoría pertenecientes a la aristocracia y a la naciente burguesía. Es, precisamente, la participación de España en estas EH la que interesa en esta investigación, pues tuvo presencia en las dos. En la HE ocupará la mayor parte de los salones que la conformaban, a través de una gran una gran variedad material bibliográfico y documental, pinturas de reconocidos artistas, piezas de arte decorativo, mobiliario litúrgico, tapices y, sobre todo, objetos de valor histórico que hacían alusión a hechos o personajes destacados del devenir nacional, entre los siglos XV y XVII. Por su parte, en la HA, participa con documentación y material arqueológico fruto de su presencia, por más de tres siglos, en territorio americano. De tal manera que, el estudio de dicha participación constituye un prisma privilegiado de observación de sus implicaciones políticas y culturales. El trabajo se divide en cinco partes, cada una de ellas dividida en dos capítulos. La primera aborda, por una parte, los postulados que rigieron las políticas del recuerdo asumidas por Italia, Estados Unidos y España, los tres países que, a uno y otro lado del Atlántico, asumieron la delantera en la celebración del IV centenario del descubrimiento de América (IV centenario); por otra, analiza los sentidos divergentes que adoptaron las exposiciones que, como eventos centrales de la conmemoración, se proyectaron en cada una de dichas naciones, haciendo énfasis en el proceso de delimitación de la naturaleza de las circunscritas para el caso español. En la segunda, emprende el acercamiento al contexto específico del país ibérico, explorando cómo una retórica visual concreta, la relacionada con la iconografía colombina, coloca la figura de Colón y el suceso del descubrimiento al servicio de la imagen de España como nación imperial, en la que confluirán una serie de prácticas del recuerdo circunscritas no solo a la pintura de historia sino al espacio público y a la industria editorial. La tercera, pone el foco de atención en el complejo exhibicionario que tuvo lugar en Madrid en 1892 que muestran, de alguna manera, una jerarquización de imaginarios nacionales en torno a la historia, las artes, la arqueología y la industria. En primera instancia, aborda los proyectos expositivos distintos a las EH, tales como la Exposición Internacional de Bellas Artes, la Escolar y el Certamen de labores, así como pequeñas iniciativas de diversa índole; para luego centrarse en las EH, especialmente en los difusos límites que acompañó el proceso de delimitación de su denominación y naturaleza, y cómo esta situación se exteriorizó en el discurso museográfico que ellas desplegaron. Las dos últimas partes asumen un estudio pormenorizado de la participación de España en las EH. La cuarta, analiza su presencia en la EHA, mostrando cómo dicha participación se inscribe en el contexto geopolítico colonial finisecular abordando, en primer lugar y de manera general, la presencia en dicha exposición de otras naciones que disputan este contexto imperial, en sus múltiples aristas, como Portugal, Dinamarca, Noruega, Francia y los Estados Unidos. En segundo lugar, se examinan las instalaciones de España, que exhibirán material de minería y objetos etnográficos procedentes, especialmente, de las que aún eran sus colonias; así como antigüedades precolombinas conservadas en sus museos. La quinta, explora las implicaciones políticas e históricas que subyacen bajo el propósito de configurar una unidad nacional que subraya la continuidad histórica entre los reyes católicos y la España finisecular en crisis, en la que confluyen: monarquía, instituciones estatales, iglesia y coleccionistas particulares. Así, en primera instancia se estudia el despertar de una conciencia imperial basada en la posesión de un patrimonio histórico y artístico por parte de la casa real; museos, bibliotecas y archivos estales; y, la iglesia católica. Por último, se explora el papel que desempeñaron las colecciones particulares, especialmente de aristócratas, en la ratificación de una línea de tiempo entre los reyes católicos y los soberanos del siglo XIX. En un intento de España por recuperar la credibilidad de un gobierno finisecular en crisis, tanto a nivel interno como hacia el exterior, su participación en las EH fue concebida, dado su alcance ibérico, americano y europeo, como una estrategia política para afirmar y consolidar su lugar como una nación con conciencia imperial; una táctica de visibilización para combatir tres frentes geopolíticos diferenciados. Por una parte, el europeo, en el que predominaba la historiografía de la decadencia expresada en la Leyenda Negra; por otra, el norteamericano, que se proyecta como una nueva potencia que puede desplazar su protagonismo en Hispanoamérica; y, por último, las recién independizadas naciones americanas que, al estar definiendo sus referentes identitarios, y ante las cuales convenia estrechar los lazos que la unían a ellas. De tal manera que, la actualización de una conciencia imperial adquiere, en la coyuntura centenarista, una dimensión enfocada en nuevas formas de colonización, desde el ámbito cultural e histórico, liderado por el movimiento hispanista, en el que historia, raza y religión compartidas, a uno y otro lado del Atlántico, se resignifican como los estandartes de una nación con conciencia imperial. La investigación permitió inferir que, en términos de patrimonialización de un pasado glorioso, se llevó a cabo una diferenciación entre el material de origen europeo, convertido ahora en argumento del grado de civilización alcanzado por España durante la Edad Moderna, expuesto en la EHE; y, el material americano, que adquiere la connotación de prueba y trofeo, exhibido en la EHA. En este contexto, el espectacular despliegue de España en las EH, a través de colecciones históricas, artísticas y de arqueología americana, contribuyó al proceso de patrimonialización de un pasado imperial que, después de cuatro siglos y a través de sus vestigios, ratificaba el aporte del país ibérico a la expansión de la civilización occidental. Logrando unir, como nunca antes, a diferentes estamentos oficiales y particulares, bajo un solo objetivo, el de traer a la memoria los cimientos que sustentaron el "descubrimiento y la conquista" del continente americano. Para el gobierno, la monarquía y la nobleza constituyó un momento propicio para reevaluar su prestigio, a través de una resignificación de sus bienes patrimoniales, que implicaría un giro en su sentido de apropiación, pues se extendería del ámbito particular al nacional. Estableciendo, de esta manera, una línea de tiempo entre la época de los Reyes Católicos, suscrita a la conquista y descubrimientos en ultramar, que elevó a la corona española a la categoría de imperio, y la de la nueva era de los imperialismos de finales del siglo XIX, en la que España necesita competir para expandir su imaginario colonizador, ahora, desde lo cultural. En este propósito, los vestigios de las glorias del pasado se actualizan con el propósito proyectar un imaginario imperialista-paternalista sobre el otro americano, el de una nación con expectativa civilizadora, bajo la que subyace la noción de una raza trasatlántica, cuyos cimientos serán una historia, una lengua y una religión compartidas. ; This work analyzes the way in which Spain built, in the late nineteenth century, an image of a modern nation based on the awareness of a glorious past, that of the discovery of America or the New World. The focus is on the analysis of the participation of the Iberian country in the Historical Exhibitions (EH) that took place in Madrid, in 1892, precisely within the framework of the celebration of the IV centenary of that event. Event of great importance for the Spanish political situation at the end of the century, characterized by the deep crisis that had left the loss of supremacy over most of its former colonies in the American continent. It is not gratuitous, therefore, that in this context we should witness a kind of competition, between three nations, for the predominance of commemoration. Italy, for being the birthplace of Christopher Columbus; Spain, for having decisively supported the Columbian project; and, the United States, for considering it the direct heir to Western civilization. In all three, the exhibition events will be the central axis of the celebration. Event of great importance for the Spanish political situation at the end of the century, characterized by the deep crisis that had left the loss of supremacy over most of its former colonies in the American continent. It is not gratuitous, therefore, that in this context we should witness a kind of competition, between three nations, for the predominance of commemoration. Italy, for being the birthplace of Christopher Columbus; Spain, for having decisively supported the Columbian project; and, the United States, for considering it the direct heir to Western civilization. In all three, the exhibition events will be the central axis of the celebration. In the case of Spain, after a first initiative, in 1888, to hold an exhibition of a universal nature -such as the one inaugurated that same year in Barcelona-, in 1891 it opted for the realization of two, of historical and international character, "arrested in the sixteenth century". Unlike the world fairs, where the architectural seal awarded by each nation prevailed, in the EH each nation will be assigned one or more rooms within the Palace of Library and National Museums, inaugurated for the occasion. The main floor will house the Historical-European (HE), designed with the purpose of showing the historical testimonies and the arts from that time and preserved by European countries. The ground floor will house the Historic-American (HA), which seeks to account for the state of development reached by the American peoples at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. In this way, the EH become the most important of its kind, not only in the Spanish field of the second half of the nineteenth century but of the whole world. The first, for bringing together objects of historical and artistic character from several European nations, but especially from the hostess; the second, for exposing for the first time, and in view of Europe and the world, the panorama of the pre-Hispanic cultures known until then, something that had not been achieved even by the International Congresses of Americanists. In them, therefore, it becomes impossible to separate the historical, cultural, artistic or scientific from their political implications. It is not surprising, then, that Spain made a display of the great wealth of its historicalartistic heritage and American material, accumulating for centuries by the royal house and the nobility; museums, archives and libraries; the church; and, private collectors, mostly belonging to the aristocracy and the nascent bourgeoisie. It is precisely the participation of Spain in these HE that is of interest in this research, since it was present in both. In the HE will occupy most of the rooms that made it up, through a great variety of bibliographic and documentary material, paintings by renowned artists, pieces of decorative art, liturgical furniture, tapestries and, above all, objects of historical value that alluded to facts or outstanding characters of the national future, between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. For its part, in the HA, it participates with documentation and archaeological material fruit of its presence, for more than three centuries, in American territory. Thus, the study of such participation constitutes a privileged prism of observation of its political and cultural implications. The work is divided into five parts, each divided into two chapters. The first deals, on the one hand, with the postulates that governed the policies of remembrance assumed by Italy, the United States and Spain, the three countries that, on both sides of the Atlantic, assumed the lead in the celebration of the IV centenary of the discovery of America (IV centenary); on the other, it analyzes the divergent senses adopted by the exhibitions that, as central events of the commemoration, were projected in each of these nations, emphasizing the process of delimitation of the nature of the circumscribed for the Spanish case. In the second, he undertakes the approach to the specific context of the Iberian country, exploring how a concrete visual rhetoric, related to Columbian iconography, places the figure of Columbus and the success of the discovery at the service of the image of Spain as an imperial nation, in which a series of practices of remembrance confined not only to history painting but to the public space and the publishing industry will converge. In the second, he undertakes the approach to the specific context of the Iberian country, exploring how a concrete visual rhetoric, related to Columbian iconography, places the figure of Columbus and the success of the discovery at the service of the image of Spain as an imperial nation, in which a series of practices of remembrance confined not only to history painting but to the public space and the publishing industry will converge. The third, puts the focus of attention on the exhibition complex that took place in Madrid in 1892 that show, in some way, a hierarchy of national imaginaries around history, the arts, archaeology and industry. In the first instance, it addresses the exhibition projects other than the HE, such as the International Exhibition of Fine Arts, the School and the Work Contest, as well as small initiatives of various kinds; to then focus on the HD, especially on the diffuse boundaries that accompanied the process of delimitation of their denomination and nature, and how this situation was externalized in the museographic discourse that they deployed. The last two parts assume a detailed study of Spain's participation in EH. The fourth, analyzes its presence in the EHA, showing how this participation is part of the finisecular colonial geopolitical context addressing, first and foremost, the presence in this exhibition of other nations that dispute this imperial context, in its multiple edges, such as Portugal, Denmark, Norway, France and the United States. Secondly, it examines the facilities of Spain, which will exhibit mining material and ethnographic objects from, especially, those that were still its colonies; as well as pre-Columbian antiquities preserved in its museums. The fifth, explores the political and historical implications that underlie the purpose of shaping a national unity that underlines the historical continuity between the Catholic kings and the finisecular Spain in crisis, in which they converge: monarchy, state institutions, church and private collectors. Thus, in the first instance the awakening of an imperial consciousness based on the possession of a historical and artistic heritage by the royal house is studied; museums, libraries and state archives; and, the Catholic church. Finally, it explores the role played by private collections, especially of aristocrats, in ratifying a timeline between Catholic kings and nineteenth-century sovereigns. In an attempt by Spain to recover the credibility of a finisecular government in crisis, both internally and externally, its participation in the EH was conceived, given its Iberian, American and European scope, as a political strategy to affirm and consolidate its place as a nation with imperial conscience; a tactic of visibility to combat three distinct geopolitical fronts. On the one hand, the European, in which the historiography of decadence expressed in the Black Legend predominated; on the other, the North American, which projects itself as a new power that can displace its prominence in Latin America; and, finally, the newly independent American nations that, being defining their identity referents, and before which it was appropriate to strengthen the ties that united them. In such a way that, the updating of an imperial consciousness acquires, in the centenarist conjuncture, a dimension focused on new forms of colonization, from the cultural and historical field, led by the Hispanist movement, in which shared history, race and religion, on both sides of the Atlantic, are resignified as the banners of a nation with imperial consciousness. The research allowed to infer that, in terms of patrimonialization of a glorious past, a differentiation was carried out between the material of European origin, now converted into an argument of the degree of civilization reached by Spain during the Modern Age, exposed in the EHE; and, the American material, which acquires the connotation of test and trophy, exhibited in the EHA. In this context, the spectacular deployment of Spain in the EH, through historical, artistic and American archaeology collections, contributed to the process of patrimonialization of an imperial past that, after four centuries and through its vestiges, ratified the contribution of the Iberian country to the expansion of Western civilization. Managing to unite, as never before, different official and private strata, under a single objective, that of bringing to mind the foundations that supported the "discovery and conquest" of the American continent. For the government, the monarchy and the nobility it was a propitious moment to reassess their prestige, through a resignification of their patrimonial assets, which would imply a turn in their sense of appropriation, since it would extend from the particular scope to the national one. Establishing, in this way, a timeline between the time of the Catholic Monarchs, subscribed to the conquest and discoveries overseas, which elevated the Spanish crown to the category of empire, and that of the new era of imperialisms of the late nineteenth century, in which Spain needs to compete to expand its colonizing imaginary, now, from the cultural. In this purpose, the vestiges of the glories of the past are updated with the purpose of projecting an imperialist-paternalistic imaginary on the other American, that of a nation with civilizing expectation, under which underlies the notion of a transatlantic race, whose foundations will be a shared history, language and religion.

Background of the research This study intends to analyses the involuntary resettlement of an indigenous Dayak community due to the implementation of the Bakun Dam Project in Sarawak, Malaysia. The significance of this research is that it raises important questions on the impact of development imposed by the state government of Sarawak on the indigenous people who have been regarded as in need of change and to be brought closer to urbanization vis-à-vis modernization through resettlement. Involuntary resettlement due to development projects or infrastructure improvements is not a singular phenomenon and in this context it is often argued that development projects provide employment to the local population and enforce development. However, a dam project also displaces local people from their homes and traditional livelihood. This research focuses on the forced displacement of the indigenous communities at Sg. Asap resettlement because of the implementation of the Bakun Hydro-electric Project (BHP). It is viewed as an involuntary resettlement as the indigenous communities who were residing within the area of the planned BHP had no choice but to move to the resettlement. Their villages and native lands were claimed by the state government for the implementation for the BHP. Thus, the whole problem is focused on the question of why is the resettlement that is promised as a development program for the people by the state government of Sarawak being regarded as forced displacement. In this research, forced displacement is observed at three different levels. First, prior to resettlement, potential settlers are faced with the critical decision of abandoning their homes and livelihoods, causing emotional distress. Secondly, after moving to the new settlement, settlers are often confronted with inadequate compensation for their loss of natural resources, social heritage and land, adding misery to their already distressed situation. Thirdly, resettling people into an area without any supportive resources, i.e. resources whose, purpose is to improve the lives of the settlers compared to their previous situation, fails to accomplish the very purpose of such resettlement. Research objectives and Questions This research utilizes Michael Cornea's analysis, the Impoverishment Risks and Reconstruction (IRR) Model (2000), which brings to the main objective of this research that is to examine the outcomes of involuntary resettlement of the indigenous people. This research compares the situation confronted by the settlers in Sg. Asap resettlement to that definition of "involuntary population resettlement" advanced by Michael Cernea (1998). In this definition, there are two sets of distinct but related processes: displacement of people and dismantling of their patterns of economic and social organization, and resettlement at a different location and reconstruction of their livelihood and social networks. Other than that, the objectives of this research are: to observe if involuntary resettlement planned for meeting the labor needs for the oil palm estates is a catalyst for socio-economic development for settlers. And for policy recommendations, the sub-objectives are: •To subsequently evaluate the problems of accessing resources. •To study to what extent the involuntary resettlement has affecting the social and power structures. •To show the level of changes in social and power structure influencing livelihood strategies. •To examine the most effective network that has provided the people a platform to generate their livelihood. This research details the process and impact of the forced and involuntary displacement faced by the settlers. Factors highlighted include the indigenous people's coping mechanism and strategy in dealing with various issues related to land rights and usage, disagreement and differences in the new social structure, competition over limited natural resources and changing power structure and relations. Issues such as the problems within the household because of the changing family structure and changing role of elderly, men and women in the domestic unit are also highlighted in this research. Most important, this research focuses not only at the displacement issue but also illustrates how settlers rebuild and restructure their life and livelihood. Therefore, based on important concepts, livelihood, coping strategies and power structure, research questions raised are: 1.How do settlers cope with the fact of being involuntarily resettled and what do they do to deal with unanticipated consequences of the social changes that occur? 2.How do settlers manage the new social structure, conflict over limited resources and changing power structures and relations within their own community? 3.Which strategies currently used by these settlers have the potential to build a sustainable livelihood in the new settlement? Theoretical background This research takes the approach of regarding resettlement first and foremost as a catalyst for social change. However, resettlement in the context of 'force' or 'involuntary,' certainly does not ensure positive changes. Dessalegn (1989) defined resettlement in a different context: land settlement, colonisation, or transmigration, all referring to the phenomenon of people distribution, either planned or 'spontaneous'. Accordingly, 'resettlement as in Ethiopia implies moving people or people moving to new locations; colonization as in Latin America implies opening up or reclaiming lands for utilization; and transmigration is favoured by those writing on the Indonesian experience and the word suggests cross-ocean or cross island relocation' (Dessalegn, 1989:668). Palmer refers to resettlement as 'a planned and controlled transfer of population from one area to another' (1979:149). Tadros (1979:122), in analyzing resettlement schemes in Egypt, applied the United Nations definition of human settlement as: 'development of viable communities on new or unused land through the introduction of people' and further defined resettlement in two models: spontaneous and paternalistic. The spontaneous model leaves full scope for individual initiatives, and no support is provided by national or international organisations. No attention is paid to the proper place and function of the settlement within the national context. In the paternalistic model, technical support such as education, tools, equipment and other assistance is provided to the settlers (Tadros, 1979:122). The above definitions can be used in a different fashion for this research, thus the term 'forced' or 'involuntary resettlement'. In reality, despite the good intentions for developing communities, resettlement can also 'under develop' communities in the sense that such communities face greater hardship compared to life before resettlement. To this extent, the working definition of 'resettlement' in this research is a poorly planned resettlement through a forced, involuntary relocation of communities onto unused land that is inadequate for communities to develop a productive and fully functional socio-economic system. This research has adapted the concepts proposed by Michael Cernea (1998), looking at involuntary resettlement in general. The concept of involuntary resettlement (in this research also termed as forced resettlement), which is the comprehensive concept most often used in the current social science literature, integrates 'displacement' and 'resettlement' into one single term, in which the emphasis on involuntariness directly connotes the forced displacement. The usual description of 'involuntary population resettlement' consists, as mentioned earlier, of two sets of distinct but related processes: displacement of people and the dismantling of their patterns of economic and social organization, and resettlement at a different location with reconstruction of their livelihood and social networks. Resettlement refers to the process of the physical relocation of those displaced, and to their socio-economic re-establishment as family/household micro-units and as larger communities. Displacement implies not only physical eviction from a dwelling, but also the expropriation of productive lands and other assets to make possible an alternative use of the space. This is not just an economic transaction or a simple substitution of property with monetary compensation. Involuntary displacement is a process of unravelling established human communities, existing patterns of social organization, production systems and networks of social services. Overall, forced displacement of communities causes an economic crisis for most or all of those affected, entails sudden social disarticulation, and sometimes triggers a political crisis as well (Cernea, 1998:2-3). This research investigates the implications of resettlement and the reconstruction of the livelihood of the affected settlers. Impoverishment Risks and Reconstruction Model (IRR) provides important variables to explore these issues further. Several important variables in the IRR model are utilised to create an independent framework for this research, and is explained in the following section. As Cernea explained, the IRR is a model of impoverishment risks during displacement, and of counteractions to match the basic risks where the multifaceted process of impoverishment was deconstructed into its fundamental components. The components are: landlessness, joblessness, homelessness, marginalisation, food insecurity, increased morbidity and mortality, loss of access to common property assets, and community disarticulation. This analytical deconstruction facilitates understanding of how these sub-processes interlink, influence, and amplify each other. Reconstruction, then, is the reversal of the impoverishment processes, and can be understood and accomplished along the same variables, considered in a holistic, integrated way (Cernea, 2000:5; 2003:40). IRR focuses on the social and economic contact of both segments of the process: the forced displacement and the re-establishment. The model captures processes that are simultaneous, but also reflects the movement in time from the destitution of displacement to recovery resettlement (Cernea, 2000:18). There are three fundamental concepts at the core of the model: risk, impoverishment and reconstruction. Each is further split into sets of specifying notions or components (as mentioned above) that reflect another dimension, or another variable of impoverishment or reconstruction (for example, landlessness, marginalisation, morbidity or social disarticulation). These variables are interlinked and influence each other; some play a primary role while others play a derivative role in either impoverishment or reconstruction (largely as a function of given circumstances). The conceptual framework captures the disparity between potential and actual risk. All forced displacements are prone to major socio-economic risks, but they are not fatally condemned to succumb to them. Cernea further explains that in this framework the concept of risk, as stated by Giddens (1990), is to indicate the possibility that a certain course of action will trigger future injurious effects – losses and destruction. Following Luhman (1993), the concept of risk is posited as a counter-concept to security: the higher the risk, the lower the security of displaced populations (Cernea, 2000:19). The model's dual emphasis – on risks to be prevented and on reconstruction strategies to be implemented – facilitates its operational use as a guide for action. Like other models, its components can be influenced and 'manipulated' through informed planning to diminish the impact of one or several components, as given conditions require or permit. That requires considering these variables as a system, in their mutual connections, and not as a set of separate elements. The model is also flexible as a conceptual template, allowing for the integration of other dimensions, when relevant, and for adapting to changing circumstances (Cernea, 2000:20). This model can be linked with other conceptual frameworks, to achieve complementary perspectives and additional knowledge (Cernea, 2000:21). There are four distinct, but interlinked, functions that the risks and reconstruction model performs: A predictive (warning and planning) function A diagnostic (explanatory and assessment) function A problem-solution function, in guiding and measuring resettlers´ reestablishment A research function, in formulating hypotheses and conducting theory-led field investigations For this research, the function falls under the third function, the problem-resolution. As Cernea explained, the problem-resolution capacity results from the model's analytical incisiveness and its explicit action orientation. The IRR model is formulated with an awareness of the social actors in resettlement, their interaction, communication, and ability to contribute to resolution. The model becomes a compass for strategies to reconstruct settlers´ livelihoods (Cernea, 2000:22). The IRR model clearly points out the results of social change and social disorganisation caused by involuntary resettlement. For the purpose of analysis, the two major variables used for the framework are: loss of access to common property assets and; social and community disarticulation, give a crucial foundation to exhibit the implications of forced displacement. Both of the major variables have been linked to understand the problems that are occurring in the community and households (shown as dependent variables - the coping mechanisms, the way settlers manage risks and the type of resources that people engage to strategise their livelihood). Each component respectively points out the results of change caused by involuntary resettlement i.e. competition over forest resources, state land and living space, and; dismantling of traditional power structure, communal structure and family structure. Although the central theme of the theoretical framework is forced displacement, the framework is expanded to the investigation of coping mechanisms, power structure and relations, and the way settlers strategize their livelihood. The research framework has aimed clearly at the impact of involuntary resettlement which is concluded in this research as causing the changes and social disorganization in the social structure of the settlers. However, the framework also extends to another level for the investigation of the strategies of rebuilding and restructuring of settlers. Main research findings With regard to the perspective to develop the indigenous people through resettlement program, as shown in this research, there are more losses than gains being achieved especially on the settlers' side. What they have left behind (history, livelihood, rights and identity) at their natural environment cannot be retrieved, and uncompensated. And it is also a fact, as proven in this research that the uncompensated losses continue to be the sole grievances of settlers and the factor of causing continuous displacement amongst settlers. This research concludes that as much as the involuntary resettlement has brought many new challenges to the Kenyah-Badeng, many of these challenges are beyond their capability to manage. The underlying problem is settlers were not actively involved in designing their future in the new settlement from the very beginning the project was proposed. The settlers were receiving diminutive information about the resettlement program, and very limited public platform for them to participate or to voice out their concerns and suggestions before its implementation. The factor that causes their continuous displacement is the non-existence of natural resources and land (other than the three acres given to them as part of the compensation) for them to generate income (remember that most of them are farmers without any skill useful to work in non-agricultural activities). Their life in the former village was hard but they were free to explore as much resources as possible, and they owned their native land. In the resettlement, they are as much strangers to the place as to the way of life they are faced with at the new settlement. In other words, settlers simply do not know how to behave appropriately in radically changed social situations because they are not equipped with necessary living tools. The study of the displacement of the Kenyah-Badengs is concluded in three important aspects as follows: Power structure and relations - In power structure and relations, kinship has always been an important aspect that became the reference for any struggle over leadership issue. Kinship is viewed on a larger scale that includes not only blood relation, but also aspects such as others who came from the same root, indicating that kinship in that term was very much related to sharing of the same history of settlement, migration and culture. It has been proposed that kinship was one crucial aspect that binds this community together, but not likely to be true at the new settlement. The power structure in the Kenyah-Badeng community at the resettlement stand as a separate system, failed to bind the people together, no orders from the leader and not accepting orders by the people. However, they carry out the norm of being as peaceful community, as they have always been. Coping through family network – Because of the failure of power structure and relations, the Kenyah-Badeng become family/household oriented in their livelihood strategies. The family network proves to be the most important coping mechanism for such challenging social environment. The family network provides a platform for its members to generate income, employment, social and moral support, education, and security in general. Livelihood strategies – With the absence of promised resources, settlers are faced with many problems with regards to economic aspects at the new settlement. Their agriculture knowledge is insufficient to success them for employment in town. They mainly work on their allocated three acres of land with other problems tagged along as the lands are located at sloppy and slumps area, as well as faced with low grade soil. For their agriculture productions, they are faced with marketing problem because of the established sellers who refused to allow them to get into the network. This research also humbly suggesting an alternative for settlers to improve their livelihood based on the available resources at the resettlement with the assistance of the state government, at least to initiate strategies for marketing. Settlers need "retooling" in many aspects of agriculture knowledge as that is what they have known best to build their livelihood. Government agencies should assist in terms of skill training related to effective methods to produce quality agriculture productions on their three acres of land. Horticulture should be encouraged on their three acres plot and this method has been carried out by the settlers in their swidden agriculture (slash and burns) at their former village areas. At the new settlement, the prospect of horticulture on pesticide free and organic food can be very encouraging. Methods The information and data for this research were obtained through formal and informal interviews, household survey, household in-depth interviews, and secondary data from available sources in prints, documents and internet. Questions for the interviews were formulated first based only on the research questions. At the field site, questions were expanded and added after numerous trial interviews with key informants to improve the questions before the real interviews were conducted. There were 55 household surveys, and from this survey, 20 households were selected randomly for the household in-depth interviews. The head of households were both male and female. Outline of the thesis This research is organized in chapters as the following summary: Chapter 1 provides the background information of the research area i.e. descriptively introduces Belaga, the region where Bakun Hydroelectric Project (BHEP) was implemented, the implementation of BHEP and the reaction of the local inhabitants. The resettlement in Sg. Asap, and the composition of the settlers are also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 2 touches the historical perspective of the Kenyah-Badeng focuses on their livelihoods at Long Geng, their former village before they resettled at Sg. Asap. This chapter also includes a brief history of their migration and settlement to Long Geng, and also the political structure in Long Geng. Chapter 3 discusses the power structure and relations of the Kenyah-Badeng. This chapter draws on the first stage of displacement i.e. processes of losing common property and space with prominent issues such as compensation, land rights and the expected involvement of local leaders in the whole process of the resettlement as highlights of the discussion. Brief history of land legislation in Sarawak based on the interpretation of Native Customary Land and native's rights over ancestral land based on literature reviews is illustrated in this chapter. The purpose of this illustration is to understand the background and general problems of land identification within the Kenyah-Badeng community prior to payment of compensation. Chapter 4 focuses on the discussion of the coping mechanisms employed by the settlers in handling crucial issues pertaining to their livelihood at the resettlement. In fact, this chapter continues the discussion of the stages of displacement highlighting the other two stages by discussing in-depth the situation of "loss of access to common property and space" and "social and community disarticulation". The headings of objectives outlined by State Planning Unit, Sarawak in the development plan of the resettlement are utilized as the base to explain the cause of the displacement and to illustrate the reality at present life of the Kenyah-Badeng. Chapter 5 focuses on the livelihood strategy in which family network is important as the platform for pooling resources. Departing from forced displacement, this chapter illustrates the emergence of coping reaction amongst the settlers by analyzing the family network discovered within the households interviewed in this research. Chapter 6 highlights the changing livelihood of the settlers highlighting the significant of wage employment where remittance is crucial to support their family who are living at the resettlement. The current perspective of settlers towards education and their willingness to invest into their children's education is also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 7 summarizes the research findings and concludes the research.

OCTOBER, J899 ooTheoo Gettysburg CONTENTS. The Character of Macbeth 1S3 Success in Business 160 A Mirror's Reflections 161 Pen Sketches from Nature 163 Editor's Desk, 168 College Y. M. C. A 169 Two Mischievous Fallacies in Education 172 Why we should be True and Honest 17S The Relation of Commerce to Missions 176 The United States as a Coloniz-ing Nation 179 Advantage of Studying the Classics 182 Athletics 186 G'SURG C. LIB. DUPLICATE FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. For Fine. Printing go to e Jo I. Wi M Hovf CARLISLE ST. GETTYSBURG, PA. C. B. Kitzmiller Dealer in Hats, Caps, Boots and Douglas Shoes GETTYSBURG, PA. J. H. Myers Fashionable Tailor, Clothier and Gents' Furnisher. The best place in town to have your Cloth-ing- made to order. All workmanship and Trimmings guaranteed. No charge for re-pairs and pressing for one year. Dyeing and Repairing a specialty. Ready-made Clothing the largest stock in town. Up-to-date styles. Bicycle Suits and Breeches Headquarters. 11 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. EDGAR 5. MARTIN, F^CIGARS AND SMOKERS' ARTICLES. Chambersburg St., Gettysburg. translations Literal—Interlinear—135 Volume* Dictionaries German, French, Italian, Spanish Latin, Greek tutorial Series JOO vnls. specially designed for coaching i^i exams, in all college studies Binds & noble Sehoolbooks of all Publishers 4 Cooper Institute, NewYork City 1 R. A. WONDERS, Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, Etc. Scott's Corner, Opp. Eagle Hotel. GETTYSBURG, PA. JOHN M. MINNIGH, Confectionery, lee, • andIee Create Oysters Stewed and Fried. No. 17 BALTIMORE ST. .THE. GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postojjice at Gettysburg as second-class matter. Vol. VIII. GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1899. No. S Alumni Editor. REV. F. D. GARLAND. Editor-in-Chief. J. FRANK HEILMAN, '00. Assistant Editors. LDTHEK A. WEIGLE, '00. S. A. VAN ORMER, '01. Business Manager, Assistant Business Manager. JOHN K. HAMACHER, '00. CLARENCE MOORE, '02. Advisory Board. PROK. J. A. HIMES, LIT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M. D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D. D. Published monthly by the students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price One Dollar a year in advance, single copies Fifteen Cents. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. THE CHARACTER OF MACBETH. [FIRST GIES PRIZE ESSAY.] SHAKESPEARE was not only the greatest po.et and drama-tist that the world has known, but also a psychologist in every phase of human thought and action. Character has been nowhere more perfectly depicted than in many of his plays, and his art is most clearly seen in the painting of a man's soul through his words. This is especially exemplified in many of his tragedies. There is a wealth of psychological study in the char-acters of Hamlet, the brilliant student and noble prince whose life is wrecked by revenge; of Othello, the high-minded warrior whose soul is racked by jealousy; of Macbeth, the brave general who attained a throne, "In blood Stepp'd in so far, that, should I wade no more, Returning were as tedious as go o'er." 154 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Hitherto Macbeth has been thought of as a man of weak reso-lution who was led astray by the dominant will of a wicked wife. This opinion has been mainly due to the fact that for years the only powerful rendering of the part of Lady Macbeth was that of Mrs. Siddons, whose strong personality easily lent itself to such an interpretation, while the only objections were raised now and then in a scholarly treatise which never reached the public. But several years ago Sir Henry Irving and Miss Ellen Terry pre-sented the play before American audiences in an entirely new in-terpretation, which at first surprised the theatre-going world, but eventually won its approbation. Under their treatment, Macbeth became, next to Iago, the worst of Shakespeare's villains, a man who brought about not only his own but his wife's moral down-fall. An impartial investigation of the text of the play will clearly show which of these views is correct. It may be well to begin, as the play does, with the objective element in Macbeth's soul, for it will show more distinctly the characteristics of the subjective. Macbeth is at first seen as the brave general. "Bellona's bridegroom lapp'd in proof," who successfully fought his country's enemies, winning glory for himself and his king. This quality of physical courage is in truth one which is part of Macbeth's real character. His por-trait does not lack in valor, from the first, when "brave Macbeth (well he deserves that name) Disdaining fortune, with his brandish'd steel, Which smoked with bloody execution, Like valour's minion, carv'd out his passage, Till he fac'd the slave ; Which ne'er shook hands, nor bade farewell to him, Till he unseam'd him from the nave to the chaps, And fix'd his head upon our battlements," till the last, when, betrayed by every portent which the witches had given him, he sees the end to be inevitable, yet plunges into battle with Macduff. "I will not yield. ***** Though Birnam wood be come to Dunsinane And thou oppos'd, be of no woman born, Yet I will try the last. Before my body I throw my warlike shield : lay on, Macduff, And damn'd be he that first cries, 'Hold, enough.' " THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 155 Another objective view of his character is that of his wife her-self: "Yet do I fear thy nature ; It is too full o' the milk of human kindness, To catch the nearest way." Bearing these two views of his character in mind, the student is prepared to pass unbiased judgment on the subjective, the real ele-ments of Macbeth's soul, as seen in the text itself. The first fact which may be established is that he had thought of murdering Duncan before meeting with the witches. Macbeth is not a good man fallen under the spell of witch-craft, which im-pels him to his bloody deeds. The first suggestion of murder comes from him soon after the approach of Ross and Angus: "Why do I yield to that suggestion Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair * * * * My thought, whose murder yet is but fantastical." Murder had been mentioned by no one—not even the witches— up to this time, and the prophecies of the witches were not such as to encourage or arouse the thought. They addressed him as Glamis, Cawdor, and "King that shalt be." The first he was by his father Sinel's death. With regard to the second: he was returning from a victory over the traitorous Thane of Cawdor, and it was in accordance with the customs of the time that the forfeited estates and title should be bestowed upon the victor. With regard to the last: Macbeth was next in succession to Dun-can, being his fiist cousin, and next of kin who was of age, as Malcolm and Donalbain were minors. His chance of becoming king was so apparent that the prophecy did not surprise the loyal and honest Banquo: "Good sir, why do you start and seem to fear Things that do sound so fair?" It was but natural for Macbeth to dream of kingship, but there was no need of crime to attain it. But one reason can be as-signed for the tumult which the witches aroused in Macbeth's mind—his former thought of murder. But we may go further: it is clearly stated that he had broached the subject to his wife before this occasion. When Duncan is in his castle, after he has definitely made up his mind to commit the murder, he tells her that he will not go on, and she replies: I56 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. " What beast was't then That made you break this enterprise to me ? » * * * Nor time nor place, Did then adhere, and yet you would make both." There is nothing here to support the theory of a good man gone to ruin through the evil influence of his wife. Macbeth himself was the originator of the murderous plan. Assured by the early fulfilment of part of the prophecy, Mac-beth seems inclined to drop his thought of murder and let matters take their course. "If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me Without my stir." He seems content to await what may happen. But, unfortu-nately, the very thing happens within an hour which is needed to again arouse his wicked purpose. The king, happy in success, lavishly bestows honors, and among them, makes his son Prince of Cumberland, which was the title assumed by the successor to the throne. While this act of Duncan's was not constitutional, it was not objected to, and Macbeth sees two men in his way in-stead of one. The barrier between him and the throne is in-creasing. Accordingly, announcing that he will go before to make ready for the king at his castle, he adds: "Stars, hide your fires Let not light see my black and deep desires; The eye wink at the hand; yet let that be Which the eye fears, when it is done, to see." This is the pivotal point in the play. Macbeth had a vague in-tention of murder before, but now he has made up his mind to commit the deed, and on that very night. Duncan's fate is set-tled. It is quite possible that Macbeth led his wife to believe that she was impelling him to the murder. It would be in entire ac-cord with the hypocrisy of his nature to bring about her moral downfall in such a way. Having made up his mind to the murder, he enters his castle. "Macbeth. My dearest love, Duncan comes here to-night. Lady Macbeth. And when goes hence? THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 157 Macbeth. To-morrow, as he purposes. Lady Macbeth. O ! never Shall sun that morrow see, Your face, my thane, is as a book, where men May read strange matters." And so later he says that he cannot do it, then yields little by little to her representations of the ease of the murder and of their escape from blame. We are impelled to pity this wife, who, guilty in her own ambition and assent to his plans, is dragged farther and farther down the road to ruin by the false dealing of her more wicked husband. This hypocrisy runs through the entire play and is manifested toward all, till his consciousness of his own false nature leads him to distrust everyone else. But the strangest element in Macbeth's character is seen in the beautiful imagery which he employs in pondering over the worst crimes. He loves to play with his conscience ; to set forth his crime pro and con; to conjure up its consequences, and he does it in language which one must admire. He is the greatest poet Shakespeare has shown the world and his genius rises as his deeds are darkest. He weighs and ponders the murder of Duncan and discusses it with his wife, until the phantom of his brain seems to be projected into space—he sees a dagger. For a moment he has a qualm of superstitious fear, but dismisses it quickly. "It is the bloody business which informs Thus to mine eyes." Then he promptly loses himself in rapt revery, and ushers in his crime with a beautiful soliloquy : "Now o'er the one-half world Nature seems dead, and wicked dreams abuse The curtained sleeper: witchcraft celebrates Pale Hecate's offerings ; and withered murder, Alarumed by his sentinel the wolf, Whose howl's his watch, thus with his stealthy pace, With Tarquin's ravishing strides, towards his design Moves like a ghost. Thou sure and firm-set earth, Hear not my steps, which way they walk, for fear Thy very stones prate of my whereabout, And take the present horror from the time, Which now suits with it." Nothing can be more awful than this portrait of a murderer reveling in mental images of what he is about to do, and causing riteUMmmmiwimmMmiMMmMB 158 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. wave after wave of emotion to pass over his sensibility, for the sake of the intellectual pleasure it gives him; yet never swerving from his inexorable purpose. With what poetic beauty of lan-guage he later describes the scene in Duncan's room : "Here lay Duncan His silver skin lac'd with his golden blood; And his gash'd stabs look'd like a breach in nature For ruin's wasteful entrance." Absorbed with the pathetic words in which he has painted his picture, he never sees that they have caused his wife to faint. He is not the man to care for a matter of such small moment as his wife's feelings. He has been spoken of as a man of moral coward-ice. This may be true to some degree, but his fears were never more than superstitious, and never stood in the way of his pur-poses for an instant. He amply paid for any such weakness in his absolute lack of feeling. The influence of the supernatural upon Macbeth's course is a most interesting point of investigation. Was Macbeth responsible for his actions, or did the witches impel him to all he did? He certainly acted for himself in the beginning of his downward path. The first meeting with the witches contained nothing to compel into the course he took, but rather discouraged it. Banquo had as much reason as he to commit murder—even more, for the throne was promised to Macbeth himself, but to Banquo's descendants only. Had Banquo not been the loyal, honest soldier that he was, he would have planned death for both Duncan and Macbeth, that he might rule in person. Macbeth had only to wait, to become king honorably. But in his second consultation with the weird sisters, he surrenders himself to them; they advise him wrongly, and in his after deeds he seems impelled by a supernatural power— he has fallen into the net of Ate. In preparing the charm, Hecate tells us "He shall spurn fate, scorn death, and bear His hopes 'bove wisdom, grace, and fear; And you all know, security Is mortals' chiefest enemy." There are two side-lights thrown on the character of Macbeth which may be of interest. The first is the opinion of Hecate con-cerning him, expressed when she upbraids the witches for giving him any knowledge of the future: THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "How did you dare To trade and traffic with Macbeth, In riddles and affairs of death ; 159 All you have done Hath been but for a wayward son, Spiteful and wrathful; who, as others do, Loves for his own ends." We must remember that this comes from a supernatural being, and, as such, must be Shakespeare's estimate of Macbeth's real character. The second is the hypothesis that Macbeth was the third mur-derer who took part in the slaying of Banquo. This is not plainly stated, but may be argued from several standpoints. So intelli-gent a man as Macbeth would hardly entrust such a thing to two parties who did not know one another ; the third man displays a most intimate knowledge of Banquo's affairs, and is most eager for the murder. It is he who brings complete instructions; who first hears Banquo's horses; he when the others wonder that they seem to be going away, explains what Banquo usually does, re-calling himself by the quickly uttered "so all men do;" he rec-ognizes Banquo; he demands why the light has been put out, and first notices the escape of Fleance. Macbeth was not at the ban-quet, for it was appointed for seven oclock : but, as the ghost ap-peared and the guests were sent away before it had really begun, and it was then midnight, it could not have begun before eleven. This leaves four hours to be accounted for, These facts, then, seem to prove that Macbeth was a man who was not content to command the_ murder of a faithful friend, to gratify his jealousy, but must do it with his own hands—in truth, murder incarnate. A poet of the highest intellectual power, who expressed his blackest deeds in the most beautiful language; a man who de-lighted in exploring every phase and consequence of his action, for the sake of the emotional waves which would pass over his soul; a man of great sensibility, but no feeling, who could weep at his own portrayal of his sins, yet never think of pausing in their committal; a selfish, hypocritical, cold-blooded villain, with the physical bravery of the devil himself, and just enough moral weakness to superstitiously shudder for a moment—what a soul-study is presented in Macbeth ! —L,. A. W., *00. i6o THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. SUCCESS IN BUSINESS. ASUCCESSFUL business man exercises a great influence in a country, both morally and financially. The requisites for this success are many. To be success-fully engaged in financial business, the old saying applies very well, that, "you must drive your business, and never let your business drive you." To do this one must be punctual in fulfilling all business en-gagements, laying aside all else, and especially keep his mind away from all worldly pleasures, attending to business first, pleasure afterwards. One must have a foresight in his pecuniary affairs. His experience in his past business must teach him to look for-ward, as to how the market stands, whether it indicates an ad-vance or a decline. His experience will teach him how to judge the market to a great extent. Then he should not be forgetful as to the standing of his bank account, and a favorable one will generally add to his prospects of success. On comparing the two, the one who drives his business, and the other who lets his business drive him, we find a vast differ-ence. The one driven by his business never looks forward, and is always in the dark as to how he stands in his affairs, until the time is reached when it is too late to make the necessary changes, which if they had been made in time would have saved him from a financial distress. His creditors come on him and he is unable to make up a sum sufficient to pay them all and consequently be-comes bankrupt. The other man, driving his business, always keeps posted as to his financial condition and is always prompt in meeting all his business obligations, and therefore is respected by all the commu-nity and is happy and prosperous. At times circumstances arise which cripple a business man through no fault of his own. The successful man will rise above these, commence anew and build a second reputation. The un-successful man will sink down, prostrated by the storm and never will rise again in business life. To be successful morally one must show by his business trans-actions that he has the welfare of his patrons at heart, as well as his own financial success. The unsuccessful man is generally of the kind whose time is nearly all given up to idle pleasures for THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 161 his own amusement, and who cares not for the welfare of his pa-trons. He has for the most part no religious tendencies and con-sequently can not have any influence for the good in the locality in which he resides. But the successful man by his integrity wins the esteem and confidence of his patrons and associates. By his industry, energy and perseverance he sets a good example to those employed by him. He is generally a man who possesses some re-ligious tendencies, and experience teaches us that this is the most essential characteristic for success. Probably nothing can be given to prove this more forcibly than the fact that the most prominent business men in our coun-try to-day are industrious, energetic, persevering, and drive their business instead of allowing their business to drive them. —D., '00. A MIRROR'S REFLECTIONS. [SECOND GIES PRIZE ESSAY.] IT had been fitted into the marble mantlepiece years ago, when the house was built, that large square of beveled glass with its back-ground of mercury, and year by year it rested there in its place against the wall, with wide, unsleeping eyes, noting all that went on in the room. At first the only sight that met its astonished gaze was the blank, white wall opposite. That was when the house was new. But soon objects and persons appeared on the scene, to attract the attention of the observant mirror, when, the house completed, families moved in. For this was one of those large houses, built in great cities, for the accommodation of many families, and it fronted on a busy street where all day long numberless feet hurried to and fro, cars whizzed by, and carts and wagons rattled over the pavement. But of all this the mirror knew nothing. It could see only what was going on in its immediate vicinity. One day a dainty covering of pale blue and gold appeared on the bare wall opposite, and a graceful picture of St. Cecilia hung there. Chairs were scattered about, and the white keys of a piano shone in the glass. Some potted plants added to the beauty of a picture already pleasing to the mirror's curious eyes, but the sight that delighted it most was the vision of a happy face, peeping in a dozen times a day to arrange a curl or set a ribbon right. Some- 162 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. times a man's dark face bent over the woman's fair one, and formed a perfect picture, but only the mirror saw it. Once in awhile a third and smaller face appeared, and a pair of tiny hands were stretched to "catch the baby in the glass." These same pictures the mirror saw, day after day, and never tired of reflecting. But one day a new and strange sight greeted its eyes. Near the opposite wall stood a tiny white box, in which was hid the baby form, now cold and still, while over it pale flowers were strewn. No happy face peeped into the mirror in those days, and soon after the chairs and flowers disappeared, the room was left empty and desolate. But not for long could the mirror mourn over lost faces; new scenes came into its field of vision. Great heaps of books were piled up on a table against the opposite wall, and beneath the light of a green-shaded lamp a boy sat with his head resting on his hands. Often the mirror saw him thus, for hours at a time, turn-ing pages earnestly, and, all the while running restless fingers through his hair. Sometimes his head dropped down upon the table, and he fell fast asleep. Sometimes he got angry and threw a book across the room. Now and then a whole troop of boys came rushing past the mirror, pausing occasionally to adjust a tie, or part their hair exactly in the middle. How long the students came and went before its shining sur-face the mirror did not know,—but it seemed a long time. One day, however, the room was again deserted, the opposite wall a blank. And thus it remained for many a weary month, until the mirror grew tired of staring at the bare walls, and longed for the sight of a living face. At last it came, a gentle patient face, framed in snowy hair, a woman's face, yet one that seldom paused before the mirror's answering eyes, a face lined by suffering, yet deeply sweet. On the walls no pictures hung, no elegant bits of furniture brightened the room, just plain chairs, and a table on which stood a single red geranium plant. The woman seemed to be quite alone, except at long intervals, when a handsome, bold-faced man staggered by the wondering glass, and brought tears to the eyes of the sad mother. One night when a little lamp burned on the table, a still form was carried into the room by stranger-hands. Soon after that the opposite wall was blank again. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 163 Many years had passed, and the busy street was no longer fashionable as a residence. Well-to-do folk sought other parts of the city, and the poorer class took possession. This the mirror did not know, so it looked with startled eyes upon the troop of ragged little ones, who next sought shelter within range of its gleaming surface. Hungry-looking children they were, who played all day long with simple toys in the bare room, and at night crept softly into corners to hide from the eyes of a cruel man. But one evening as the shadows began to fall, and obscured the view of the mirror, a sudden tumult arose, the children ran hither and thither, some-thing crashed against the mantlepiece, a blow shivered the glass, and the mirror's reflections were ended. -A. R. W., '99. PEN SKETCHES FROM NATURE. [THIKD GIES PRIZE ESSAY.] I DO not wonder at the ancients who peopled the earth, sea and air with gods, and then lest some one should be omitted and offended, built altars to both the known and the unknown ones. For even to-day, with all our minute knowledge of nature and revelation, her mild moods fills the breasts of the most in-telligent with fear and awe. Clouds assume monstrous and fore-boding forms and go scurrying, like martial hosts, across the sky, or hang like smouldering mountains on the distant horizon, hurl-ing bolts of fire at each other the while they are lit up by lurid flames and are rolling forth volley upon volley of artillery, whose concussions shake the very earth. Nor is there less to marvel at, even if there is less to fear, when the rain comes down in cata-racts, when the whistling sleet drives swift and sharp, or when the crystalline snow silently changes the bare fields into acres of diamonds. To the ancients, all these agencies in nature were persons or represented personalities. Beautiful conceptions they were, in-deed; but how much grander are ours. We have studied cloud formation and movement; have discovered sufficient of the laws by which electricity acts to harness it for our use, and have di-vested all nature of the personal element. But though we have thus removed Heaven from our surroundings as we have emerged 164 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. from the infancy of our race, we have made it a far higher and nobler conception. In learning that God is not in the whirlwind, we have subordinated it as a manifestation of Him to that gen-eralized and centralized Force, which is all powerful to create and all sufficient to preserve in equipoise the energies which are continuously working in nature. Nature is no longer manifesta-tions of persons, but of a Person. * * * * A little knowledge of nature often reconciles us to workings which otherwise seem only destructive. Many a man whose buildings lie in ashes, the result of a "hot stroke" of lightning, questions the utility of lightning, and is disposed to attribute it to an angry God, useful only to Him as an instrument of revenge, even as the ancients placed the thunder-bolts in the hands of angry Zeus. The following fact sought to receive our consideration and help to reconcile us. The air which we breathe is a mixture of three gases, possessing no particular affinity for each other. They are continually being used up by animal and vegetable growth and from the same sources again given off free. In an unmixed condition they would not serve their purpose. The mixing is pro-moted by electric discharges, and knowing thoroughly how essen-tial this process is to vegetable and animal growth, and especially to one's own life, it is easier to be reconciled to temporary loss and even to suffering, than when one is ignorant of these workings of nature. Not so destructive are meteors. Only occasionally does one read of a house being crushed and a family destroyed by their fall. Of what use are they? Any one who has lived in a city whose atmosphere is foggy of mornings, will attribute the same to the smoke, and so it is. The air is capable of holding a great deal of moisture, and were it perfectly free from dust particles, very little of the moisture would be precipitated. A heavy dew would likely fall nightly, but no showers, though the air be al-ways damp and laden to the point of saturation. The little dust particles are helpful to the formation of drops of rain. Meteors are the chief source of this microscopic dust. Coming from way out in space, millions and millions of miles from us, cold as space, they make a start for the sun. However, some of them in their eagerness to start on their journey, do not calculate for our earth and the power she has of influencing small bodies, and coming too near, they get caught in the atmosphere and only oc- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 165 casionally does any such escape. Even if anyone does, it is only after it has been so singed by the friction of the winds that it is scarcely to be recognized again by its most intimate friends. Its path can be traced by its long trail of dust, a memento of its visit. These dust particles become the recruiting points of the invisible moisture and the clouds are formed, and when they fall as rain or snow they bring the dust with them. But there are generally more of these particles than the moisture can use up, so the little sunbeams use these in a game of hide and seek and dash in and out among them so swift and in such varied ways that all we can see is the region in which they play, which seems a large city of fairy palaces painted in orange and jasper and gold, and we wish their morning and evening play hours would last all the day. Science in its infancy saw only facts; it is now discovering re-lations, and more and more tracing all phenomena to a central force which is causal for all events and existences. In this uni-fying and classifying process, there are some points which must remain for some time yet on debatable ground. The exact line of demarcation between the plant and the animal kingdoms is not fixed; in the lowest orders they merge insensibly into each other. As we rise above these low forms, the differences are more marked and charasteristic, physically ; but we never reach a point where they are not dependent and related, virtually. Beyond my window is a field of clover. Odor and color at-tract the bee. The pollen and nectar gives him a double burden to wing hive-ward. Both these are essential to his life. Neither does the clover yield them without being blest in the giving. Unknowingly the bee fertilizes the ovary and the plant is perpet-uated. This is only one link in the great chain of united and de-pendent relations. The clover roots penetrate into the soil, and air and water follow, disintegrating rocks and forming soluble compounds of the inorganic elements. These latter cannot sup-port animal life; but transformed into clover, they become, through the agency of the bee, honey—delicious and wholesome; or, con-sumed by the herds, flesh—invigorating and sustaining. Thus does the thinking man discover that in thousands of ways are nature's forces united and working for the sustenance and happi-ness of him, who is the crown of her products, and the best ex-pression of earthly existence. IHH^HHHmm 166 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. I remember as if 'twere yesterday, how, when a child, I was used to bend over little cone-shaped cavities in the soft soil under a thick-leaved tree or shelving rock and cry, "Rolly-bolly, come up your hole, come up your hole, come up your hole." I usually succeeded in getting "rolly-bolly" to respond, for soon the little grains of soil would move as though he were coming up. I never could get him to come clean out, though; and, angered at him on this account, would order him, "down your hole," or dig him out with a stick. I never once thought they had any other mo-tive for making pits or living than to come out when called unless they were stubborn. Alas, for all such childish fancies! I have since watched them and found that those are real treacherous pit-falls, formed with a malicious purpose,—to catch the innocent ants. And so voracious and cruel are these "rolly-bollies" that they deserve the name given them—ant-lion. The surest way to get them to come up is to throw a struggling ant into the little pit. The ant is at once conscious of its danger and immediately begins a pitiable and frantic effort to get up the incline. But the little grains of sand roll down beneath the struggling feet, and, trembling, sink into the treacherous quick-sands below at whose centre there is already a vigorous pushing up. Soon the ant is being helplessly pulled down by its leg into the dining room of its superior and hungry foe. You cruel rolly-bolly, what are you good for anyhow ? Do you do anything but kill the industrious ants ? What are you here for ? If rolly-bolly could answer I know he would say that life is as sweet to him as it is to the ant or to me. A sad and unpleasant law this seems at first: "And that a rose may breathe its breath, Something- must die." Humanity rebels against it. Man uses the power given him to exercise dominion over the earth, air, and sea, and even wages war against his kind, to prolong his little life which disease and death soon terminate. Could not God have peopled the earth with a limited number of immortal beings and prevented all this merciless warfare between kingdoms and races and species, and the shameful survival of the bloody strongest ? Doubtless it could have been done. But if the ant-lion and the ant could speak, they would likely prefer to live as they do, foes indeed, but each one enjoying life with all its dangers and uncertainties. And surely we can learn a lesson. The sum total of happiness is THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 167 greater when many enjoy life a short while that if a few should live always. It is our duty to live as long as nature permits, "to husband out life's taper to its close" ; to be unselfish for the sake of those who are living now; to be virtuous for the sake of those who shall live after us. Just as one meets with surprises in observing nature, finding unlooked for beauties and new adaptations, so there also await us disappointments. Birds, flowers and minerals which have been idealized by painter and poet are always disappointing when they are seen in reality, and this is especially true of those things which have been used as symbolic of the celestial and spiritual. St. John's description of the walls of the New Jerusalem is so sub-lime that one builds them of imaginary stones more exquisite than ever were found. For if built of our real amethyst, jasper and topaz, their combination would be exceedingly disappointing. But what better could be done ? Alone on Patmos, surrounded by rocks and sea and sky, conscious of the povetry of language and the inadequacy of terrestial objects as symbols, he fills in the picture with these colors, with a feeling identical to that expe-rienced when in the midst of the book-learned world he tells us, at the close of his beautiful gospel, that the world could not contain the books that should be written. These are only symbols. The music for the ears, the colors for the eyes will be such as hath never yet been conceived by the heart of man. # * # ^ There is but one way to Nature's soul, accessible to all ages and conditions ; it is found by those who love her with a sympa-thetic heart, for herself alone. The scholar who has habituated himself to scientific analysis of every object he meets, fails to se-cure that best knowledge of her tempers and strivings. A poor comforter indeed would he be who was so scientifically inclined as to think of the proportion of water and salts of sodium and potash in the tears of his weeping.friend. Is he any more worthy of Nature's confidence who sees in every bird an ornithological specimen, in every flower an addition to the herbarium, in every stone a mineral for his cabinet ? To see her best we must look at her sometimes with simple childlike eyes, even as we did when every object was for us a living personality. i68 T THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "Siisse, heilige Natur, Lass mich gehn auf deiner Spur, Leite mich an deiner Hand Wie ein Kind am Gangelband 1 Wenn ich dann ermiidet bin, Sink' ich dir am Busen hin, Athme siisse Himmelslust Hang-end an der Mutter Brust. Ach, wie wohl ist mir bei dir! Will dich lieben fii and ffir ! Lass mich gehn auf deiner Spur, Liisse, heilige Natur ! " —F. L. Stolberg. —W. B. C, '99. EDITOR'S DESK. HIS word from the MERCURY comes late but it is sincere: Welcome, thrice welcome to the Freshmen ! The Gies prize of seventy-five dollars has been offered again to the students of Gettysburg. The object of the generous and loyal alumnus who offers it is to develop literary talent among our students and to afford the best possible material for the MER-CURY. As this prize gives so fine a chance for a convenient pocket-full, every one with a spark of ability should compete. Since the number of students competing for the prize last year was small, of course the articles of value for the MERCURY were few. This prize money is divided between the three best contributors, into parts of thirty-five, twenty-five, and fifteen dollars. Last year the successful contributors were Luther A. Weigle, 'oo; Anna R. Welty, '99; and W. Bruce Carney, '99. The paramount object of an institution of learning is mental training and consequently one would suppose that those intending to enter such an institution would be influenced more by its facili-ties to develop mental power than by anything else. Yet such is by no means the case, for the high record of a college in ath-letics is found to be its best drawing card. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 169 Whether this incentive is one that friends of a college may be proud to use or whether it is disgraceful that superiority in con-tests of skill and physical strength should be made the basis of appeal to those desiring to enter college is not for us to answer. What we must meet is this fact, that not to fall behind its class, a college must make a good record in athletics. The sizes of Freshman classes in institutions making a good name in athletics last year seem to indicate that successful athletics means success-ful colleges. We rejoice that Dr. McKuight is living in the present and is doiugall in his power to stimulate athletics in Gettysburg. Many of Gettysburg's best friends little think how vital the question of athletics is to our college. L,oyal alumni, Gettysburg calls on you for support! Remember the Athletic Association of your Alma Mater! COLLEGE Y. M. C. A. DURING recent years the work of the Young Men's Chris-tian Association has been forcing itself steadily before the gaze and the admiration of the public and to-day it must be recognized as a mighty power in the world. It is our duty therefore to look at it as such. In its growth it has had great obstacles to overcome and one of them has been the great lack of interest and aid given it by the Christian people. In fact many have been positively antagonistic to the movement. This should not be and I feel that if the work in all its departments were fully understood there could no longer be this antagonism. It is our purpose therefore to show to you a little of the inner life of the association. It might be well to look first at the aims and purposes of this movement as a whole and also at its divisions of work. L,et me state here that the Y. M. C. A. is not apart from the church, that it is not a separate and distinct organization, but a part of the church, reaching out its hands unto thousands of young men and bringing them into active church work. Its fundamental purpose then is to bring men to a saving knowledge of their L,ord and Savior, Jesus Christ. It is to help them to successfully battle against temptations and bring them into vital connection with the church. No other part of the church seems so ably 170 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. adapted to carry on this work among young men. In that it is a movement distinctly for men, we are able to reach many whom otherwise it would be almost impossible to save. The association work is non-sectarian and therefore should appeal to every branch of the evangelical church. As most probably is known to all, the work is divided into three distinct branches, the town, the railroad and the student. As we see how the many young men who are swarming our cities and towns are kept from yielding to the temptations peculiar to these places, and how many more are led to an acceptance of Christ, and as we see in the railroad circles the real earnest en-thusiasm in the cause of Christ and winning of souls to Him among those who have found the Life, we cannot but feel God is with us, and if He is with us, we know that souls must be saved and this is the fundamental aim of all our work. But we cannot dwell longer on these departments, but must turn our attention to that branch which is of vital importance to the student world. It is a recognized fact that the men who are to rule the world are the men who year after year are crowding out of the doors of our institutions of learning. If therefore we wish our government to be under the control of Christian men, men who will not flinch at doing their duty no matter what the consequences may be, it is of the most extreme importance that these men be won to Christ in their youth while they are within the college walls. To this end we are striving. It is almost impossible for anyone who has not been on the ground for himself to realize the awful need of Christian work in the colleges of our country. It fairly makes the heart break as time after time we see fellows coming from Christian homes where every helpful influence has been thrown around them and where possibly they have been looked up to for nobleness of character, and then come to college, sepa-rated from home and launched out into an entirely new life with its peculiar temptations, and amid fellows, some loving and some not knowing Christ, and then to see them fall little by little. It is pitiable in the extreme. And then there are those who have never known Christ, and what an awful influence they have on the weak Christians. It is for this that those who are Christians may be kept from falling and kept in touch with Christian work and that those who know Him not may be brought to Him that the Y. M. C. A. stands in college. I THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 171 In order to accomplish this we do not depend alone on our re-ligious meetings which we hold twice every week, but we have regularly organized Bible, Missionary and Personal Workers classes. If we wish to broaden our spiritual life we must employ those means which God has distinctly made known to us, and these are secret prayer and Bible study. The importance of this can not be too strongly urged. It is the backbone of all Chris-tian work. The International Committee of the Y. M. C. A. has furnished us with a most excellent systematic, devotional course of Bible study. Through it in the four years of college life a man has had a bird's eye view of the entire Bible. The Fresh-men take up the life of Christ; the Sophomores "Studies in the Acts and the Epistles" ; the Juniors, Old Testament characters ; and the Seniors, the crowning truths of the Bible. The Senior course will not be ready, however, for another year. The classes meet once every week and are entirely under the control of the students. Four years ago in the colleges throughout the United States and Canada there were eight thousand students banded to-gether in Bible study. Last year that number was increased to twelve thousand who continued in the work at least two months. The Morning Watch is urged for the most successful Bible study. This is the setting apart of about fifteen to thirty minutes to Bible study and secret prayer at the very beginning of the day when we can give our best thought to God. How can we afford not to give God this little time that we may hold sweet commun-ion with Him. Missions are brought prominently to the front in our work. Here again we use the course prescribed by the International Com-mittee. The class meets every week. Besides the class work, contributions are solicited from the students for Missions. In connection with the class is a volunteer band for the foreign field. The great need of missions is becoming to be more and more felt and where can there be a better place to stir up the mission spirit than right among college men ? Another most important part of our work is the personal work done among the fellows. A class is formed for the best methods of doing personal work and for discussion of the work to be done. Personal work is something every Christian ought to do and for which there is no excuse for not doing but rather condemnation. Another feature of the work is the work among the new stu- 172 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. dents, meeting them at the train and doing whatever we can for them to help in making them feel at home. An information bureau is also conducted. Especial efforts are put forth at the opening of the term to enlist men in Christian work before they form any evil associations. A reception is also held at the open-ing of the term for the new students that they may all become acquainted with each other and with all the men in college. May this brief sketch of the work of our association but move us on to a more earnest and prayerful appreciation of these privileges which we now enjoy, and may its success be the con-stant prayer of all who are interested in the cause of Christ. —WM. J. MIMJER, Jr., '00. TWO MISCHIEVOUS FALLACIES IN EDUCATION. EDUCATION, as we now understand the meaning of the term, must accomplish its purposes in the face of two mis-chievous and prevalent fallacies. The first of these is the fallacy of the short cut, the desire to avoid a long course of study and discipline; the disposition to make our culture consist in a few phrases and in merely superfi-cial knowledge of a great many things. Especially is this the case with the young people. While a boy is at his studies, his acquaintance, who is doing something that can be rated in dollars, measured with the yard-stick or weighed upon the scales, seems to him to be getting on, while he seems to be standing still; so he chafes and frets at his studies and longs to be in active business. How much better it would be for the world if such a boy could be made to understand that it is no gain, but a fatal loss of time to undertake to have a hand in the world's work before he can do anything that the world really wants; that if he wants a place he must first become such a person that the place will want him. The impatient boy ought to understand that so far as he is con-cerned the world is entirely patient, that it is quite willing to wait for him until he has mastered himself and some department of knowledge or industry, but that when he has done that the world is so impatient for him that it will at once find him out and set him at work. If however, he undertakes to participate in the world's work before he has fully prepared himself, what-ever he seeks he will find at his elbow some better man seeking THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 173 the same thing—some man who did what he failed to do ; a man who made the most of himself; who did not strive to do four years' work in three; a man who made the utmost of all his op-portunities. It is true not only that the trained man wins, but that the trained man is about the only one wanted to do any kind of work. In ordinary conversation we find ourselves referring to the young graduate as having "completed his course" or "finished his education," and yet if we think soberly of the matter we know that if the school or college has done its work properly for him it has only prepared him to be educated. The idea that education is a thing to be concluded definitely within a few of the earlier years of life, then to be regarded as forever over and done, and that it consists of some disagreeable preliminaries of syntax, Latin, grammar and rhetoric, to be gotten out of the way as speedily as possible; this idea of education we understand to be thoroughly obsolete. Rather do we understand that education, if it means anything, means the continual enrichment of the re-sources of the individual. How foolish then to think that an education can be "completed" or "finished" by taking a shortcut. The president of a certain college on being asked by a young man if he could not in two years probably get all the good that the college could give him, said: '' Well young man, when God wants to make a squash He takes about six weeks, but when He wants to make an oak He takes a hundred years." Another difficulty against which we must strive in the educa-tion of others or of ourselves is the alluring fallacy about the self-made man. Some one has wittily said that the chief char-acteristic of the self-made man is that he is much given to the worship of his Maker. Doubtless this is more witty than it is just. By a self-made man we generally mean one who has achieved distinguished success without the aid of schools, and if we think soberly about the matter we are in no great danger of saying too much in praise of such men. America, of all countries, should speak respectfully of the self-made man. In no other country has he achieved such splendid things; no other country probably owes so much to the self-made man. But what does he prove? In every case where a man has achieved great success by his own unaided efforts, he has been a man of extraordinary abilities, 174 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. and he has succeeded by means of these abilities in spite of and not because of the lack of other aids. We are now beginning to recognize the fact that the self-made man is one who has made the most of his opportunities. Every-man in the world who amounts to anything is a self made man. It is simply a question of using one's actual opportunities. Abra-ham Lincoln was a self-made man. So just as truly was William Gladstone. The opportunities of the one were those of narrowness and poverty; of the other, abundance and comfort. Each made the most of his opportunities, and for each equally this was the condition of success. We ought to understand that self-culture is not a term to be applied only to those who have not the advantages of assistance from the schools, but that the term self-culture describes the personal enrichment of every individual who simply makes the best of whatever opportunities he has. What great mischief has been wrought in the past by the fal-lacious idea that the man who takes advantage of the training which our schools and colleges offer is not a self-made man. Such a man is, indeed, the highest type of a self-made man. If we wish to be thoroughly prepared to engage in the active duties of life, and if we wish to give to the world the fullest reali-zation of our possibilities, we must be fully aware that there is no short cut in education and that the self-made man is that man who has made the most of his opportunities with or without the aid of the school or college. —' 'PROMETHEUS. '' Who reads Incessantly and to his reading- brings not A spirit and judgment equal or superior, (And what he brings, what need he elsewhere seek ?) Uncertain and unsettled still remains. Deep versed in books and shallow in himself. —Milton. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 175 WHY WE SHOULD BE TRUE AND HONEST. TRUTHFULNESS and honesty go hand in hand. Truth alone may not constitute a great man but it is the most im-portant element of great character. It gives security to those who employ it and confidence to those who use it. It is an essential to every man no matter who he is, the king on his royal throne or the slave in the galley. In fact it is one of the first re-quisites for true manhood. Lying, common as it is, is denounced by the liar himself. He protests that he is speaking the truth for he knows that truth is universally respected and a lie universally condemned. He who tells an untruth is not only dishonest but a mean coward. Fear-ing the consequences of making a true statement, he cowers be-neath a lie or probably, what is even worse, just keeps on the verge of the truth, for a lie which is half truth is the worst of lies. Exaggeration is but another name for falsehood. To exaggerate is to pass the bounds of truth and surely these bounds cannot be passed without entering the limits of falsehood. There can be no middle point; what is not true must be false. Not only may one be dishonest in the words he utters but also in his doings. Actions have as plain a voice as words. The sin-cere man speaks as he thinks, acts as he professes to act and does what he promises to do. All phases of society are permeated by this most common of vices, from the highest to the lowest. A lie is a lie, no matter if it is a little white one or a big black one. Ruskin says, "Lies may be light and accidental but they are an ugly soot from the smoke of the pit and it is better our hearts should be swept clean of them without our care as to which is the largest or the blackest." Truth and honesty show themselves in many ways. They characterize the men of just dealings, the faithful men of business and those men who will not deceive you to their own advantage. Full measures, just weights, true sample and a strict fulfillment of engagements are indispensable to men who would succeed. We are always complaining of adulteration of the goods we buy. We pay for one thing and get another. In the study of Chemistry, we learn for instance, how cotton goods is very often treated so as to bring more money into the manufacturer's pocket. The cotton is loaded with china clay, starch, magnesium or zinc. 176 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. When such goods is washed, the clay and starch are removed and it becomes a rag. Recently an engineer crossing the Indian Ocean was decorating his turban with a piece of muslin. "Is that English?" he was asked. His answer was, "No, it is from Swit-zerland. The English makes my fingers stick. It's too gummy." This is the way the dishonest Englishman would eventually lose his trade by forcing this inferior, shoddy stuff on his customers. Why not be honest and sell goods for what they are ? Thus in all walks of life one may find falsehood and deception. But why ? Is it not always easier to tell the true straightforward story than to go to the trouble to invent a lie ? At first it is, but like all other habits, lying increases with practice and an experienced liar often finds difficulty in telling the truth. Very many times he tells a crooked story where the truth would have served his purpose even better. —J. C. M., '00. e^j THE RELATION OF COMMERCE TO MISSIONS. WE are living in an age of great commercial activity. The remarkable progress of science within the last century has afforded surprising facility in international commu-nication ; distances have been annihilated, and those parts of the globe most widely separated may now be said to be in compara-tively close touch with one another. The printing press, the railroad, the telegraph and the steamboat have brought into ex-istence an international community of interests as well as of thought. Along with this there has naturally sprung up great commercial rivalry, and nation now vies with nation in seeking new markets for its products. Vast as the world's great market is, the gigantic proportions of our modern manufacturing industries demand new openings. Nor would it seem a difficult task to find such openings when we but consider the hundreds upon hundreds of millions who need but be raised from their present state of savagery and barbarism to the light and life of our modern civilization to create new de-mands for the world's supply of commodities. With this object in view trading posts and colonies have fre-quently been established in the midst of savage peoples in order to awaken among them the wants peculiar to civilized life by THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 177 bringing them, as much as possible, into contact with the products and institutions of civilization. However, the results of such undertakings have not,as a rule,been of a nature calculated to recom-mend the system to us. Evidently the principle was wrong; our sav-age brothers need something more potent than the mere veneer of our modern civilization to bring them into a condition in which there will be a demand for the commodities of commerce. It is evident to the most casual thinker that between commerce and missions there exists a natural relation; but the remarkable closeness and strength of this relation is recognized by compara-tively few. We all agree with the statement that missions ma-terially promote commercial activity; but many of us shake the head, or at least want time to think it over, when we hear the statement that the founding of missions is essential to commer-cial success in a heathen land. That the latter statement is true however, we believe a careful study of the subject will prove. Reference has already been made to the efforts put forth to re-claim the savage from his degraded state and create in him new wants by familiarizing him with the manners and institutions of civilized society. The utter failure of such efforts has also been referred to. Experience has shown that the savage man may come into frequent contact with civilized men and the products of civilization without being in any way prompted to change his own mode of life. To him civilization, with its multifarious wants, is sheer foolishness, and contrasts very unfavorably with his own life of indolence and general simplicity. What then is the "Open Sesame" whereby commerce may gain entrance to this great market? The answer is plainly, the Gospel of Christ,—not civilization, as we have learned, for gen-uine civilization, with all its requirements must be preceded by the Gospel; whenever the order is reversed failure results. We might cite numerous examples to substantiate this statement. That civilization alone is insufficient is proven moreover by the fact that savages, after having been separated from their na-tive tribes and degraded life for years, given a good education and brought under the influence of the highest civilization, have fre-quently been known to relapse again into savagery. For a very significant illustration of this fact permit us to quote from Rev. J. C. Bryant, who, in writing in the Missionary Journal, says: "Of fourteen young meu who have left my employ within two i78 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. years, one has since been converted, and of course clothes him-self; the rest go naked as before, showing how impossible it is to civilize men without first converting them. Wash a pig and shut him in a parlor, he may stay clean for a while, but as soon as free he will return to wallowing in the mire. Make a lamb of him, and at once he gives up his filthy ways. To try to civilize heathen without converting them is to try to make lambs of swine by washing them and putting on them a fleece of wool." Thus we see that the only way whereby the world's savage and degraded millions may be brought into the full light and en-joyment of civilization and thus be made important factors in commerce is the way of the Gospel. It is only when the Gospel enters the hearts of men that they awaken to the great possibili-ties of life. New wants are created. The former savage no longer lives in tents and covers his body with the skins of beasts but dwells in a house and dons the garb of civilization. Instead of the few and primitive wooden implements by means of which he formerly cultivated the soil, he now uses modern implements of agriculture. And in every department of life this inward transformation gives rise to a demand for the various products of civilization. And thus it ever is, the Gospel opens the way, and in its wake comes the commerce of civilized lands. For another illustration of the great value of missions to commerce, let us briefly consider the missionary development of the Sandwich Islands. Less than three-quarters of a century ago these Islands were utterly valueless from a commercial standpoint. The inhabitants, who were most ignorant and lazy, lived in sav-age simplicity. The Gospel was carried to those Islands, with the result that a wonderful transformation followed. Civilized com-munities sprang into existence; churches and school-houses were built; agriculture was given new life, and the fertile soil of the Islands was made to yield bountiful harvests; various industries were created, and a steady and profitable trade with the Islands began. And at the present time the entire cost of christianizing the Islands is more than paid back in less than a year at the port of San Francisco alone. Many similar instances might be cited but we believe that sufficient has been said to show that Chris-tianity is essential to real commercial success and activity in those lands now in heathen darkness. Wherever it goes it exerts a quickening influence, it actuates men to living a more exalted, THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 179 more useful and more industrious life. It elevates the general character of society, and firmly establishes the power of civiliza-tion. It is essential to real progress and growth, being to human-ity what the sun is to the world. In view of these considerations it is a matter of surprise to note the comparatively slow progress which is being made in the world's evangelization. The very nature of foreign missions enti-tles them to the zealous support and encouragement of all civi-lized peoples. Christianity stands for the very highest type of civilization. Like an everflowing stream of purest water, it vivifies, purifies and transforms all with which it comes in con-tact. Christian missions constitute the only agency whereby men may be reclaimed from darkness and destructive indolence, and brought to a full realization of all the benefits of civilization. Their every advance gives a new impetus to commerce, for they bring about industry and fruitfulness. Under their divine in-fluence the earth is made to yield to men its richest treasures, and those places once desolate and unfruitful become the abodes of prosperity. "The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them; and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose." —R. D. C, '00. THE UNITED STATES AS A COLONIZING NATION. EVERY nation that has ever been a factor in the development of the human race has had some strong characteristic which has given life and form to its civilization. Among the Greeks it was culture; among the Romans it was law; among the Hebrews it was purity; among the Americans this one central idea is liberty. For it, and for scarcely any other cause, thousands of them have shed blood in battle, and sacrificed their lives. From our earliest existence as a nation we were the best representative, if indeed not the only one, of pure civil and religious liberty. Two other representative characteristics of the nation are the unequaled energy and the undaunted perseverance of its people. There is scarcely any doubt that to-day the American people are the most aggressive, the most expansive and at the same time the best champions of liberty in the world. These characteristics of the people of the United States account largely for their being at i8o THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. once the most extensive and the most successful colonizers the world has yet seen. "A colony is a territory, not forming, for political purposes, a part of the mother country, but dependent upon her, and peopled in part, at least, by her emigrants." According to this definition there was no time in its history that the United States has not had colonies. The small country along the Atlantic sea-board had scarcely been organized before it launched out upon one of the most extensive colonizing schemes in the history of the world. In a few years the great Northwest Territory was settled largely by colonists from the mother country and new states were formed from it. This territory was not fully developed until the vast tract known as the Louisiana Purchase was also added. This domain, large enough in itself for a strong kingdom, was thrown open for colonization and in seventy-five years scarcely less than a dozen states have been developed from it. Since then the terri-tory of the United States has been extended by the Gadson pur-chase, the Oregon cession, the annexation of Florida, the Mexican cession, the Purchase of Alaska, and the annexation of the Ha-waiian and Philippine Islands. In the colonization of this vast territory the government had no trouble with the slight exceptions of the quarrel introduced into Kansas from the states and the Mormon power in Utah. This may in part be accounted for by the contiguity of the colonies to the parent government. Since we can go no farther west but must spread out to the islands of the sea we encounter more diffi-culties; but with the schooling we have had during the last hun-dred years we need not fear for our future success in colonizing or civilizing. When we consider with our great energy and deep love of liberty, our advantageous position, our immense wealth, our mar-itime power, our extensive commerce, our enlightened civilization, and our religious enthusiasm, colonization seems to be the work for which we as a nation are especially fitted. And when we compare our colonizing policy with that of Spain we can still further see why we have thus far had so successful a career and will likely have in the future. We find that throughout her career as a colonizer her ruling passion was jealousy; that her primary objects were subjection and and self-enrichment. Everything that could possibly tend to ac- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 181 tivity, education, enterprise or independence was sedulously dis-couraged . The government of her possessions in the New World, extending at one time from 37° N. to 41 ° S., was administered entirely by foreigners who cared only for their own and the parent government's welfare. The original inhabitants, instead of be-ing raised to a higher plane of living, were reduced to a state of abject bondage and imbecility. At the beginning of the 18th century her annual income from her colonies was about ten mil-lion dollars. What do we behold as the result of such a course of colonization ? Her vast possessions in North and South Amer-ica have long ago slipped from her control, and now even Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands, her last colonial possessions, are lost to her forever. Spain's colonial policy was a failure. Examining more closely our past career we find instead of our controlling policy being jealousy it was first a desire of improve-ment in the domestic condition of the colonies and second the strengthening of the entire country. Instead of discouraging ed-ucation, enterprise, study, and independence, schools were organ-ized and encouraged, capital was sent into the territory for indus-trial development, railroads were built, and independence was en-couraged by extending to the colonies the privilege of becoming states as soon as they were capable of self-government. Instead of being ruled entirely by the parent state the colonies selected their own officers and administered their own local affairs, the national government reserving to itself only a veto power. In short the territories were held in a state of tutelage until they could manage their own affairs and then were admitted into the Union on an equality with all the rest of the states. In our new possessions many new conditions confront the government. They are thousands of miles away ; they are mostly in tropical latitudes; and they are more thickly settled than were our former colonies. In our new venture of crossing the seas to find colonies many of our old principles will still serve us well. We have become more philanthropic in our policy: we no longer expect any strength to the home government, nor any great com-mercial advantage, and certainly no increase of wealth. Our guiding hand, liberalizing influence, and generous sympa-thies have been extended solely in the effort of raising the inhab-itants to a higher political, social and religious plane of life. Our great aim here will doubtless be as it has been in the past to train 182 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. the colonists in the habit of self-government. This will be done by letting them, so far as possible, manage their own affairs to their own advantage and interest. It is now our duty to give them peace and order, the foundation of a beneficent government, and afford them every opportunity of prosecuting their lawful pursuits. —"GEORGB." ADVANTAGES OF STUDYING THE CLASSICS. OBSERVATION and the personal experience of many have proved that the classical department of an institution is the one least appreciated by the majority of the students. That such should be the case is due, perhaps mostly, to the fact that in this department we find some of the most difficult labor. It is, therefore, natural that the minds of some of the students should be prejudiced on this subject. It has often been a surprise to see men of experience argue that the study of Greek and Latin will never benefit a man. To say the least of the majority of such men, we can only say that they expose their ignorance by speaking on the subject. To convince such men that there are really benefits and advantages derived from studying the classics, is not the original idea of this produc-tion. But if they are patient in following while we speak of at least some of the advantages derived from studying the classics, they may be induced to lay aside their "Cui boni" criticism in regard to this subject. That advantages are derived from studying the classics has been proved conclusively by the past. While the world has had some powerful intellects who were not classical scholars, we can, never-theless, say that the most powerful minds of the past and the present are those which have been developed by classical culture. Let it be understood, however, that by studying the classics in this production we mean true, honest and earnest study. Not such studying as the majority of the students pursue. To say nothing of the dishonesty and injustice of such studying both towards the professors and towards the few of the class who are honest enough not to use translations, let it suffice to say that such a course of study will never secure true and lasting good to the scholars. All are willing to acknowledge that a student while at college THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 183 is laying his foundation for future usefulness in active life. And while the body must not be neglected, the mind is after all the important factor to be developed in the student. Now while the study of all the different branches has the tendency of developing the mental faculty, we hold as the first advantage derived from studying the classics, that they have the tendency more than any other branch to develop the mind of the student. The develop-ment of the mind may be a subtle point to discuss ; but what we mean by it, without bringing into consideration mental philosophy, is the cultivation of the mental faculties so as to expand the mind, thus making it stronger and more capable of grasping and prose-cuting other studies. It is the brain power that the student stands in need of, and as the muscles of a man are developed in propor-tion to his muscular efforts so the mind is developed and expanded in proportion to the exertions made. We find that in all institu-tions of learning much attention is being paid to the classical de-partment. The recitations are about as two to one compared with the recitations in any of the other departments, and frequently we find the professors in this department the most competent men of the institution. It is known that the recitations in said department are for the most part difficult. Taking, therefore, into consideration the time occupied in studying the classics and also the hard work em-ployed in solving many of the dark and mysterious passages of the same, we can come to no other conclusion than that classical training will develop the mind. In the second place, studying the classics will develop and en-large our thinking and reasoning faculties and our judgment. These are the faculties which place us so high above the brute creation, and if properly developed give to man his true dignity. The less these are developed the lower will be the standard of our manhood, but the more they are developed the higher will we as-cend towards that position intended by the Creator for all rational creatures. The man who cannot reason and think for himself is at best a poor and insignificant being. The above named faculties are the ones which should be par-ticularly developed in the student. Let him pursue the study of Greek and Latin diligently and he can not fail to improve him-self. I ATHLETICS. THE opening of the football season this year has been more encouraging than for some years. The material is better and heavier, the spirit of all the boys is higher, and the scrub team is larger and stronger than at any time within the knowledge of any man at college. There has been one great disappointment, however,—in the matter of a coach. Money is already secured to defray the expense, and a man was practically engaged, but at the last moment he went back on us, and we were left in the hole. Manager Imler THE GETTYSBURG MERCURi. 187 has been making strenuous efforts to secure a man, but has not succeeded as yet. Captain Dale has been doing all the coaching, being ably assisted by White, '97, a well-known former captain and half-back, who has been coaching the backs, and Ott and Menges, '97, former tackle and guard, who have been coaching the line men. The most attention has been given to defensive work, recognizing that there is no hope of winning the first two games—Indians and State—and the wisdom of the coachers was shown in the low score made against us by the Indians. Hickman is back at his old place as center. He plays the same good defensive game as formerly, and has improved greatly in offensive work. Nicely, our well-known big guard, is showing the same good form which always characterizes his work. Hoff-man has rapidly learned his place at left guard, and is playing an aggressive game. The guards-back is very effective as played by these men, they tearing big holes in the opponent's line. Gilbert retains his place at right tackle, with Williams, our former center, at left tackle. Gilbert's ability is well known, and Williams is fast getting on to his new place. Minuigh, a former Gettysburg High School player, is holding left end, and Emmert the "little sub," who was so much praised by Dickinson and Susquehanua last year, is playing left end. Both are speedy and manifesting excellent tackling ability. Rugh, a half on last year's team, is filling the position at quarter very acceptably, being quick and sure. Captain Dale at right half is so well known that nothing need be said concerning his ability. Koller, left tackle for two years, is filling left half. He is learning the position rapidly, and with a little experience at the place will be all that can be desired. The biggest surprise of the year is the ability displayed by Young, last year's captain and end, at full-back. He plays a fierce game, both offensive and defensive, his line-bucking being the hardest seen here for some time. Dale does all the kicking, and is prac-ticing hard at goals from the field. Other good men are Henry for the line; Krout, quarter, McClean, end, and Weaver, back. The Scrub, captained by Bottiger, 'oo, has been unsually strong, and is giving the Varsity good hard practice. The first game was played Saturday, September 23d, against the Indians at Carlisle. The result was encouraging in the highest degree, our men holding the Indians down to twenty points. In addition, but one of their tallies was a touchdown, the other three i38 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. being goals from the field kicked by Hudson. Our men played a fine game both offensive and defensive, and Young and guards tore great holes in the Indians' line. We clip from a comment on the game in the Philadelphia Times, September 25th: "Gettysburg did finely, and should rank somewhat better, it seems, than Swarthmore, Dickinson, Haverford, or Franklin and Marshall, who may usually be ranked with her.'' Now let everybody do his best to prove this prophecy true. —W. C F. SOLT MERCHANT TAILOR Masonic Bldg., GETTYSBURG Our collection of Woolens for the coming- Pall and Winter season cannot be surpassed for variety, attractive designs and general completeness. The latest styles of fashionable novelties in the most approved shades. Staples of exceptional merit, value and wearing durability. Also altering", repairing-, dyeing and scouring at moderate prices. .FOR UP-TO-DATE. Clothing, Hats, Shoes, And Men's Furnishing- Goods, go to. I. HALLEM'S MAMMOTH CLOTHING HOUSE, Chambersburg St., GETTYSBURG, PA. ESTABLISHED 1867 BY ALLEN WALTON. ALLEN K. WALTON, President and Treasurer. ROBT. J. WALTON, Superintendent. flummelstomn Bromn Stone Company Quarr3Tmen and Manufacturers of Building Stone, Sawed Flagging and Tile Waltonville, Dauphin Co., Pa. Contractors for all kinds of Telegraph and Express Address. Cut Stone Work. BROWNSTONE, PA. Parties visiting the Quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station on the P. & R. R. B. ii1 j PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. The Century Double-Feed Fountain Pen. Fully Warranted. 16 Kt. Gold Pen, Indium Pointed. GEO. EVELER, Agent for Gettysburg College. PRICE LIST. No. 1. No. 1. Chased, long- or short $2 00 Gold Mounted 3 00 No. 3. Chased 3 00 No. 3. Spiral, Black or Mottled $2 SO Twist, " " 2 SO Hexagon, Black or Mottled 2 50 Gold Mounted 4 00 Pearl Holder, Gold Mounted S 00 THE CENTURY PEN CO. WHITEWATER. WIS. Askyour Stationer or our Agent to show them toyou. Agood local agent wanted in every school' ■ 'J^^^i^fi^jff^^-iixiJrmE CENT!) Printing and Binding We Print., 'The Mercury' THE MT. HOELY STATIONERY AND PRINTING CO. does all classes of Printing' and Binding-, and can furnish you any Book, Bill Head, Letter Head, Envelope, Card, Blank, or anything pertain-ing to their business in just as good style and at less cost than you can obtain same elsewhere. They are located among the mountains but their work is metropolitan. You can be convinced of this if you give them the opportunity. Mt. Holly Stationery and Printing Co. "SPRINGS, PA. SJ I H.S. BENNER, .DEALER IN. Groceries, Notions, Queensware, Glassware, Etc., Tobacco and Cigars. J7 CHAMBERSBURG ST. ■■■■■^i^^HHiH WE RECOMMEND THESE BUSINESS MEN. Pitzer House, (Temperance) JNO. E. PITZER, Prop. Rates $1.00 to $1.25 per day. Battlefield a specialty. Dinner and ride to all points of interest/including the three days' fight, $1.25. No. 127 Main Street. MUMPER & BENDER Furniture Cabinet Making, Picture Frames Baltimore St., O.ETTYSBURCI, PA. You will find a full line of Pure Drugs and Fine Sta- People's Drug Store Prescriptions a Specialty. .QO TO. l?otel (Gettysburg Barber Sfyop. Centre Square. B. M. SEFTON J, A. TAWNEY ,. Is ready to furnish Clubs and Bread, Rolls, Etc. At short notice and reasonable rates. 'Washington & Middle Sts., Gettysburg. W.F.CODORI, Bi2E5S£d Dealer in Beef, Pork, Lamb, Veal, Sausage. Special rates to Clubs. York St., GETTYSBURG. Davib Croxcl, Dealer in ^tne groceries anb Hottons e4*_4Jorfc Street. .GO TO. CHAS. E. BARBEHENN, Barber In the Eagle Hotel, Cor. Main and Washington Sts. YOHN BROS. Agents for the Keystone State, Waldo, Washburn, Groupner & Meyer. Highest Grade Mandolins, Guitars, Banjos, Mandollas and Mandocellos. Headquarters for Phonographs, Graphophones and supplies. Trimmings of every description. All sheet music one-half off. Large discounts on Books and studies. 326 Market St., Harrisburg, Pa. I FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. I Baseball sSapplies, .Spalofng's Xeaguc Jfiall, /kits, flbaefte, Etc. Managers should send for samples and special rates. Every requisite for Cennte, Oolf, Grlcftet, ttracft ano ffielo, ©Btnnasium Equipments ano ©utfite Complete Catalogue Spring and Summer Sports Free. The Name the Guar-antee." a. ©. SpalOing & JBroe. New York .•. Philadelphia '." Chicago ROWE. YOUR GROCER Carries Full Line of Groceries, Canned Goods, Etc. Best Coal Oil and Brooms at most Reasonable Prices. OPPOSITE COLLEGE CAMPUS. S. J. CODORI, **Druggists Dealer in Drugs, Medicines, Toilet Articles, J- Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. BALTIMORE ST. R. H. CULP PAPER HANGER, Second Square, York Street. COLLEGE EMBLEMS. EMIL ZOTHE, ENGRAVER, DESIGNER AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER. 19 S. NINTH ST., PHILADELPHIA. PA. SPECIALTIES: Masonic Marks, Society Badges, College Buttons, Pius, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through C. H. Tilp. Gotrell Leonardi 472-474 Broadway, Albany, N. Y. /lakers of CAPS, QOWNSand. HOODS To the leading American Colleges. Illus-trated Manual, etc., upon application. Meneely Bell Co. TROY, N. Y. MANUFACTURERS Of SUPERIOR BELLS The 2000 pound bell now ringing in the tower of Pennsylvania Col-lege was manufactured at this foundry. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. You can't expect to create the im-pression that you are well dressed unless your clothes are MADE FOR YOU. Equivocate as you may, the fact remains that ready-made garments lack that air of exclusiveness which custom work possesses. J. O. LIPPY, Merchant Tailor 39 Chambersburg St., Gettysburg-, Pa. G. E. SPANGLER, Dealer in Pianos, Organs, Music, Musical Instsuments, Strings, Etc. YORK STREET, 1ST SQUARE. GETTYSBURG. L. D. Miller, GROCER Confectioner and Fruiterer. Ice Cream and Oysters in Season. 19 Main St. GETTYSBURG City Hotel, Main St. Gettysburg. Free 'Bus to and from all Trains Thirty seconds' walk from either depot Dinner with drive over field with four or more, $1.35 Rates $1.50 to $2.00 per dayt John E. Hughes, Prop. [Will INSURE YOURJ FAMILY ONEYEAR-/. rAGAINST ILLNESS, PHYSICIANS'* PLUMBERS' BILLS.DUETO IMPURE AIR, To/ifrfijpfJi ffew Vort. Sosfon. PMMe/p/i/d. CA/cdSO. Sd/ifo/iasco. lo/>

GETTYSBURG "NEWf " PRINT. CATS 1 i '|pnm VIMBHimwiw IV/fl1 «'.!.# J tilT* VM :, HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intereollejiate finreaa or Academic Eostume. Chartered 1902. Cottrell & Leonard Albany, N. Y. v»rywwvwwwvwvww^v Makers of Caps, Gowns, Hoods I? WANTED. > College students during their vacation can easily make $20 to $30 per week. Write for par-ticulars. THE UNIVERSAL MFG CO, Pittsburg, Pa. Come and Have a Good Shave. or HAIR-CUT at Harry B. Seta's New Tonsorial Parlors, 35 Baltimore St. BARBERS' SUPPLIES A SPECIALTY. Also, choice line of fine Cigars. Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company, A, L, Menbeck, AgEnt. COLLEGE. IF YOU CALL ON C. fl. Bloehei*, Jeuuelef, Centre Square, He can serve you in anything you may want in REPAIRING or JEWELRY. ■ ■WiiJAlJtl mJ\m I II: WJE RECOMMEND THESE FIRMS. The Pleased Customer is not kJ> SONGS OF ALL THE COLLEGES. frn Price, $1.jo, postpaid. m Oopji !«»'.n ^ HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers, New York City. W IT Schoolbeoks of all publishers at one store, ff^ff 2 XK- ^* 3.*= ^V =t*= =\* A* =Vt :\V **- *t m lEMIUJaMUBUUi nniHMn PATRONIZE OUR • ADVERTISERS. mm WE HAVE A COMPLETE LINE Of Novelties for the Fall Season, including Latest Suiting, Coating, Trousering and Vesting. Our Prices are Right. SPECIAL CARE TAKEN TO MAKE WORK STYLISH AND* EXACTLY TO YOUR ORDER. Cllill (XI. Seligman, Taiio*. 7 Chambecsbapg St., Gettysburg, Pa. R.A. WONDERS Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, etc. Scott's Corner, opp. Eagle Hotel GETTYSBURG, PA. Pool Parlors in Connection. D. J. Swartz Dealer in Country Produce Groceries Cigars and Tooacco GETTYSBURG. Established 1867 by A/Inn Walton. Allen K. Walton, Prea. and Treaa. Root. J. Walton, Superintendent. ItllQllStOWB BrowQ Stone ConpaDj, and Manufacturers of BUILDING STONE, SAWED FLAGGING, and TILE, WALTONVILLE, DAUFHIN COUNTY, PENNA. Contractors for all kinds of cut stone work. Telegraph and Express Address, BROWNSTONE, PA. Parties visiting quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station, on the P. & R. R. R. ■HMUHI Mf\\ 1 PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. l Mioo«te»o»«o»««««to«>«t>» «»ooo»oo>tc Weaver Pianos and Organs : Essentially the instruments for critical and discriminating buyers. Superior in every detail of construction and superb instruments for the production of a great variety of musical effects and the finest shades of expression. ClsM Pricw. 'Eiir Ten:. Old tutnmeati Zzchasged. WEAVER ORGAN AND PIANO CO. MANUFACTURERS, YORK. PA., U. S. A. ttiGipft Latest Styles in HATS, SHOES AND GENT'S FURNISHING .Our specialty. WALK-OVER SHOE M. K. ECKERT Prices always right The Lutheran publigfjing ponge.- No. 1424 Arch Street PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Col-leges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and devel-op one of the church institutions with pecuniary advantage to yourself. Address H. S. BONER, Supt. 1 The CClevQUpy. The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. Vol. XIII. GETTYSBURG, PA., FEBRUARY, 1905. No. 8 CONTENTS 'WHERE PROVIDENCE PREVAILED," , . . 246 BY MISS HARRIET MCGILL, '06. THE NOVEL OF SENTIMENT,* 25.0 "IMBEM." THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE, . . . 259 BY H. F. SMITH, '07. RELIGION AND SOLITUDE, . 265 BY SAMUEL E. SMITH, '07. THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF A MILLIONAIRE,*' . . 268 "NOMEN." EDITORIALS, . • . 274 EXCHANGES, ". .276 ♦Contributed for Pea and Sword Prijze Essay Conteat. LiUlMUflMfti i \| 246 THE MERCURY. WHERE PROVIDENCE PREVAILED. Bv Miss HARRIET MCGIU., '06. THE woman waited; as in the lulls of the moaning, De-cember night wind, she heard the sound of sleigh bells mingled with the laughter of happy lovers, who sped swiftly by, she smiled, then gave a little sob, and smiled straight away again. "For what," she said, " if the waiting is long, one has always the past as a companion." Yes, "as a companion" and as such, Time had been kind to the woman. True, he had streaked the black hair with grey, and hardened the strong large hands with marks of toiling, but these things mattered little, for had he not left the great dark eyes undimmed? Just as twenty years ago, when they had look-ed frankly up into the face of the man whom their mistress call-ed ''husband," and smiling through their tears, spoke more plain-ly than any language the great word "courage," even so had they looked ever since into the face of Old Father Time, and looking smiled; no wonder then that he could not dim them. And the man : he also was waiting; the woman waited in a room bare and cheerless, the room of a servant in a great city, that of the man was equally bare and cheerless, it was the pris-on cell of one whom the world called "criminal." Now comes the strange part of our prelude, in the fact that neither of these people knew, how that for which they waited would come to them. Those who had placed the man in his present position, knew well how to make arrangements, by which his wife should not be permitted to see him. He was "in for life," and it was granted, even by the faithful few who remained true to the conviction of his innocence, that his case was hopeless. Yet throughout the twenty years, firmly, as upon the day of their parting, had these two believed in the hope of deliverance, and trusted, as it is the lot of few to trust. The night wind also sighed and moaned around a rude log cabin, that lay a tiny speck upon the broad stretches of the great western prairie. Lonely, sequestered, isolated, truly might ^HHHH THE MERCURY. 247 * * this humble home have been called the " Lodge of some vast wilderness," so far was it removed from the haunts of men, so little did its inhabitants know about the lives of their fellows, in the great outside world. ■ Here, upon this winter night of which we W rite, the good wife of the house, a plain, simple, country woman, who had, up to this time, lived her even, uneventful life, in a spirit of honest contentment, lay down to rest, worn with the day's work. This woman knew nothing of our convict or his wife, the story of the crime whose tragic consequences had involved him in ruin, and blasted the life of the girl whose eyes said "courage," had never even reached these humble prairie dwellers, and when Marie Cor-douy closed her eyes that night, she expected nothing but the "sleep of the just," the usual reward of her hard labor. Instead —well let us hear the story of her dream; she says, "I was there, and yet not there; for somehow I know that the girl I saw was alone, after she bade her sister good-bye, saying that she would go through the wood to the farm of a neighbor who lived about two miles away. I can see her now as she walked along, she was a pretty girl, with hair like gold, and eyes like the "bluets,". which grew all around her in the forest, as she walked among them barefoot, her shoes in her hand, for she took them off to save them, when she came to the wood. So she walked on for sometime until she came to a large rock that stood out on the bank of a stream, and here she sat down to rest, for the day was warm, and she tired. Suddenly two men crept out from the trees behind the girl. One was tall with a scar 0.11 bis face, he seem-ed to be middle aged, the other was smaller, and from his looks could have been a son of the first. Just as she sat there, with-out any thought of harm, those men rushed on the girl, and throttled her, then they carried the poor tiling, into the bed of the stream, and foully murdered her there, while the water washed away the signs of their bloody work. When it was done, they went back to the rock and tried to move it. At last they got space enough to dig a kind of a grave underneath, where they buried the girl, her shoes beside her, and the knives with which ■^^■HnuAfl-fi 248 THE MERCURY. they had stabbed her. When I saw them sneak away, through the trees, the horror of the thing awakened me." So great was this horror, that Marie awoke her husband, and told him of the dream, but, saying that it was nothing, told her to try to sleep once more. Yet again came the dream, as viv-idly as before, and then again, three times, did she have it be-fore morning came to deliver her. Still John Cordouy said that it contained no portent, and advised her to forget it, this how-ever was easier said than done, and from that nig*ht Marie was a changed woman. The dream never seemed to leave her mind, its weight oppressed her, and finding no sympathy in John, she yet persisted in telling her gruesome tale, not only to him, but to any chance traveller whom she could persuade to listen.— Finally, for the world is a small place, after all, the news of the dream reached the ears of the woman who waited. Teresa Jardain, wife of the supposed murderer, whose life imprisonment instead of death because of inability to find the body of the girl, had been secured by the man who accused him ; a man high in power, a tall man, with a scar on his face. .This man's son had once loved the dark eyed beauty of Teresa, who had refused his offer of marriage, and had afterwards been spurned by the girl, whose strange disappearance had so affect-ed the life of the Jardains, the neighbors, to whose farm she was last seen starting out. Now into Teresa's life, since her brave fight against the world began, had entered much wisdom ; it was as the " wisdom of the serpent," and with it she determined to save her husband, and see his face once more. As has been said, there were some few friends remaining who believed him innocent; to these men Teresa went, with the strange story of the dream, implor-ing their aid. At last this plan was agreed upon. Two of these men, who were fortunately wealthy and influential, went secretly to the prairie home of Cordouy, disguised as travellers. As usual Marie, eager for listeners, related the story of her dream, she seemed to find relief in telling it as often as possible. They then took Cordouy into their confidence, and proposed to him a trip through the East to the place where the tragedy occurred. BBlnflftFi THE MERCURY. 249 Marie would of course accompany them, and should she recog-nize the surroundings, identify the men, and find the body of the girl, the murderers might be forced into a revelation of the truth. In the meantime the story was to be kept secret so that they might be taken off their guard. Their plans were strangely successful, when Marie, in the course of their journey, reached the neighborhood where the murder took place, she seemed to grow more and more excited, at last she could stand it no longer, and told the others that this was the place of her dreams. Eagerly leading them into the wood, (a. strange place remember, where she had never been before,) she hurried on until she reached the rock by the streamlet, and began in her haste to dig away the earth beneath it, with her own hands. She was however persuaded to give place to work-men, who arrived with suitable tools, and soon dug from their resting place of twenty years or more, the skeleton of the girl, the knives and even the remainder of the shoes, which lay by themselves, near her head, showing that she had worn them. The story now spread far and wide, and the real murderers, fail-ing in an attempt to flee the country, confessed their guilt, and met the punishment which had been for so long a time delayed. The night winds no longer moaned around the prairie cabin, with a story of duty left undone, its sound bears rather comfort to the woman within, her mission is fulfilled, Marie Cordouy is satisfied. No longer does a captive, Paul Jardain, stretch im-ploring hands, behind his prison bars and implore it to bear the message of his innocence to the world. The weary watch of Teresa, the woman who waited, is over, for Providence worked a miracle with the passing of the night wind. [D1^B^HHHHHEthere are many novel readers who might express the bitterness -of their experience in the lines of Thompson— " Ah from real happiness we stray, By vice bewildered, vice which always leads However fair at first to wilds woe." Every man has a model for his life, an ideal, and how much -does a man's welfare depend on the ideal which is enshrined in ihis heart of hearts ! Any force which has the power of chang-ing ideals should be (both) helped and hindered in its opera-tion, aided that it may effect the greatest good and hindered Jest it accomplish the most of evil. Fiction has shaped ideals and it is moulding ideals today and in many cases this is being ■done with great injury to humanity. Too many of our novelists picture woman as an angel or a fiend. At one time they por-tray woman, as the flatterer, the seducer, the destroyer, and as-sociate her with such deadening villianies that she appears as .a veritable Medusa petrifying all that is noble in the nature of man; while at another time, under the spell of their pens she ■■■■■■■^■■■■H ■: , ' '\U- U --- v - -^ 256 THE MERCURY. stands forth as semi-divine a creature too wondrous for daily contact with the world. From a social standpoint, it is truly alarming to observe the opinions which are held by thousands-of the male sex concerning women, and not a few of these de-praved ideas can be traced to the popular novel. While wo-man can fall lower and can also attain greater heights than* man, yet the vast majority of women occupy a middle plane where virtue is a companion and the ordinary duties of life keep the angelic qualities in the background. It can safely be said that the average work of fiction is too radical in depicting the characters of women. Somewhat allied to the above topic is the illusive idea so-prominent in current fiction that it is an absolute fault to be commonplace. All real life is commonplace. It is a round of duty and service and only once in a great length of time does a man spring forth who rises above his fellows. Anything that derides the homely toil of the private citizen or makes men* dissatisfied with their station in life by infatuating them with visions of power selfishly attained, must be characterized as-pernicious, because it places false ideals before the eyes of men. There is also an influence at work today of the same nature,, that makes the securing of wealth the one thing for which men should strive, and many novels of the twentieth century are strongly imbued with this spirit. After an examination of many popular books, it is found in numerous instances that wealth is regarded as the greatest thing in the world. This is-not done in a direct way, but is brought by a hint here and a* suggestion there, benumbing reason and calling into action all that is sordid in the soul of man. Thus there are novels which speak of millions with an air of studied carelessness, while others recount the struggles of a hero who begins life as a poor boy and finally becomes the possessor of hundreds of thousands and even millions. Such ideas held out before the young peo-ple of today are most harmful. While wealth is- desirable, it is of secondary importance. It does not bring character nor happiness to its possessor, and is often a hindrance to noble endeavor. How refreshing it is when some novelist deigns to> m WIUHMWJIlllWi THE MERCURY. 257 give to the public a story of the poor, of people in ordinary-circumstances, showing to mankind that riches are not the passport to happiness. Let our writers take Thackeray for their pattern. That the ideals in our current literature may be truer and nobler, let our talented authors acknowledge Dickens their patron saint and tell to humanity the strange story of the toil-ing world. When the character of the novel of sentiment has been re-viewed, the mind naturally becomes alert to observe the effects of reading popular fiction. The results are only obvious when, after the reading of books, an investigation is made among one's friends, and every man looks into his own soul, with a view of discerning their exact measure ot influence. Many surprises await one making such an investigation, but probably the most astonishing is the fact that the opinion of many people can be known if one is familiar with the last book which they have read. In other words, too many men and women accept the statements of books without applying the test of common sense and reason. Thus, through the frailty of humanity, the novel of sentiment is efficacious for much of good and evil. The greatest fault, perhaps, of the twentieth century novel is the depraved condition of the mind which it produces. By its stimulating power the novel gives an unnatural tone to the mind and brings it into such a condition that there can be no true appreciation for the more noble works of literature. The public libraries and the ones in many colleges testify to the pre-vailing order of affairs, since it is stated on good authority that nine-tenths of all the books which are taken from their shelves are fiction. A doctor of divinity of the Presbyterian Church confessed not long ago, that while he was visiting a neighbor-ing minister and helping to conduct evangelistic services, he found a set of historical novels in the library of his friend, and having become interested, he did not rest until he had read the entire series. " During that week," he said, " I read three of those novels and I had such a feverish interest in them that I purchased the entire set as soon as I returned home." In- 258 THE MERCURY. stances of such fascination are numerous among all classes, and they are destructive to true mental development. Again, the novel of sentiment, within whose pages vice and unnatural affections are so vividly portrayed, debases ten while it is helpful to one. By many it is argued that the immoral book is the most severely moral because it shows to the reader the blackness of evil. This is a fallacy which has always been urged concerning sin; it is the siren voice of the tempter. Such arguments have destroyed the virtues of a multitude. How shall their falsity be shown ? The philosophy of the poet in the lines so frequently quoted reveals the truth— " Vice is a monster of such frightful mien, As to be hated, needs but to be seen ; But seen too oft—familiar grows her face, We first endure; then pity ; then embrace." Throughout the body of this essay a spirit of criticism has been manifested toward the novel of of the last twenty years. In view of the facts such criticism is needed. But praise should be given to authors like Ralph Connor, who has written books with a definite purpose. However, it is very difficult to select really good novels from the great mass of fiction. An inquiry, with the purpose of obtaining a basis for the discrimination be-tween the good and bad in fiction, makes a most fitting con-clusion to our observations on this subject. Under what cir-cumstances is the novel of sentiment a safe agent ? Only when some noble purpose fires the writer; only when the author has some real message for humanity in his book. Sentiment con-nected with the fickle things of life becomes a demoralizing power. The average novel is dangerous from its lack of prin-ciple and purpose. Thus it must be said that this lack of prin-ciple in most of our sentimental novels characterizes them as unfit for a place in our libraries. THE MERCURY. 259 THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE. BY. H. F. SMITH, '07. ■** their greatness to the long struggle between France and England," says Thiers in his History of the Consulate and Empire, in speaking of the sale of Louisiana by Bonaparte to the United States. This statement contains two views in them-selves somewhat debatable: First, Whether the United States is indebted for its birth to France. Some think in all proba-bility we would have gained our independence without the aid of France. This could be so and yet the indebtedness not be lessened, for France did help us by the revival of spirits and by material means in the battle of Yorktown. Second, that we are indebted for our greatness to the long struggle between France and England, and not so much to ourselves, we shall en-deavor to establish. In so doing let us look at matters from the French side instead of the American side, and it is proper to do this, since it came to us through French statesmanship with little agency of our own. ' Except the Floridas, the thirteen original colonies with their western claims extended to the Mississippi. Colonization was for France a question of life or death. The French were es-pecially active in this line. As colonizers they far exceeded the English in brilliancy. They were more energetic, persis-tent and courageous; but when an eminent Frenchman had achieved anything great, he was so v?in or ambitious as to wish no other Frenchman to share his glory and would even in some cases war against a rival; furthermore he was not sus-tained by the home government. But the primary cause of lack of results was internal dissention, a constant warring among themselves. Had the energy which they directed toward one another been applied to the obstacles to be overcome, " they would have been consumed as a pathway through the Alps was eaten by the vinegar of Hannibal." The noble Champlain, the indefatigable La Salle, Cartier, Jberville, and Bienville, all figured in the establishment of set- 26o THE MERCURY. tlements in Louisiana. Men were kidnapped and sent over by the thousands. Women became so scarce that cargoes of marriageable girls, filles a la cassette, so-called from the little trunks in which each prospective bride carried the trosseau pro-vided for her by the government, were sent over and on arrival at the levee, were speedily and happily mated. But in a series of wars culminating in the defeat of Montcalm by Pitt and Wolfe combined, all of what were before known as the Colonies Western Claims, were lost and France had only New Orleans and the unexplored area west of the Mississippi. On account of these misfortunes France thought it best to-give up her scheme of colonization and develop home interests. So, desiring an ally in her weakness, she secretly ceded Louis-iana to Spain. This treaty was long kept secret and was much lamented. When the news was broken to the Creoles, the con-sternation was similar to that of the Acadians when they were entrapped. This stripping of France of her American posses-sions created a craving for revenge which was fully satisfied when she helped to tear the thirteen colonies from England, The Louisiana subjects remained true to the French in their hearts, although Spain ruled them generously. Napoleon now became almost absolute ruler with the title of First Consul. He had marvelous schemes of colonization and immediately set about to regain Louisiana. Godoy, who was the power behind the throne in Spain, fearing a probable attack by England, negotiated a treaty very advantageous to us, satis-factorily establishing boundaries, and the " right of deposit " at New Orleans. But when Spain became hopelessly dependent on France, Godoy resigned in despair. A treaty was then negotiated with Berthier, Bonaparte's agent, by which France was to have Louisiana and also the two Floridas while Spain was to have a kingdom of at least one million subjects taken from the French conquests in the northern half of Italy, over which was to be set the Duke of Parma, husband of the infanta, the daughter of Carlos IV. This treaty was negotiated Oct. I, 1800, and was considered by Mr. Adams the source of our title to Louisiana. The king of Spain did ■■nCMBlnMIMrlBwHtHMHMMIIl THE MERCURY. 26 r not as yet sign the treaty. All subsequent treaties were but modifications of this. After some time Napoleon sent his brother Lucien to Madrid to finish the treaty, but he did not succeed in obtaining the king's signature because Godoy who was recalled to power suc-ceeded in bribing him and thus baffling Napoleon. France then prepared to take Louisiana by force and would probably have succeeded if the San Domingo Revolution had not occur-red and blocked all the schemes. But on Oct. 15, 1802, Na-poleon through his agent secured the king's signature but only under most exacting conditions. The United States now comes upon the scene. A new Presi-dent, Jefferson, sat in the presidential chair. " Peace is our passion," was one of his favorite sayings. When it became known that France was dealing secretly with Spain for the retrocession of Louisiana, the West and South, who hated the Spaniards, became wild lest the French getting New Orleans would close the lower Mississippi to commerce and thus ruin them. Accordingly a new minister,' Robert R. Livingston, was sent by us in August, 1801. He was set against the supercilious, deceitful, and arch dissimulator, Talleyrand, who denied every-thing, with some truth, for as yet the king of Spain had not given his signature. But we received definite information from our minister in England. Jefferson thought that trouble was imminent. In 1802 Morales, the civil officer of New Orleans, abrogated the right of deposit, closing absolutely the Mississippi to the United States. This right had been enjoyed since the treaty of 1795. By that treaty it was to last for three years; but at the end of that time, the right was suffered to continue. Now that the right was taken away, the alarm in the West made war seem inevitable. But matters were somewhat calmed by the Spanish minister at Washington and the Governor of Louisiana disclaiming the action of Morales. Jefferson now hit upon a scheme to allay the turbulent ill-humor of the settlers; but in this plan he 262 THE MERCURY. builded far wiser than he knew. He sent a special envoyv James Monroe, to buy outright New Orleans and Florida, with #2,000,000 in hand. The French envoy at this point used his influence to get Napoleon to do away with the interdict of Morales. Monroe had definite instructions : I. He was to purchase, if possible, New Orleans and the Floridas, and he might expend up to #10,000,000 rather than lose the chance. 2. Should France refuse to sell even the site for a town, the old right of deposit as granted in 1795 was to be tried for. Should that fail, further instructions were to be awaited. Jefferson was de-termined to have peace, and showed great moral courage and strength of character in maintaining so steadfastly, in that war-like age, his noble attitude. But if Napoleon would not have wanted to sell Louisiana, no statesmanship or money on our part could have bought it. After they had first sold it to Spain, there was nothing but re-gret, which was not satisfied until negotiations for its retroces-sion were begun. We have seen with what zeal these were pushed. Now that it was in his grasp again could anything tear it from him ? We have said that Napoleon had marvellous schemes of col-onization. The building of a New France in Louisiana was one of them. But his plans were doomed to failure. His own campaign in Egypt and the project for the great invasion of India by Massena had first come to naught; now his schemes in the Occident were meeting with disaster. In San Domingo,, general and army had perished under the weapons of the blacks and the stroke of pestilence. The gloom of a mighty European struggle was ominously looming up on the national horizon. At this time occurred the incident in the drawing room of Josephine, when Napoleon, without any ceremony,, went up to the British ambassador and after an insulting con-versation said that he would have Malta or war. Joseph, Napoleon's other brother, first became apprised of Napoleon's intentions and then informed Lucien. Their cha-grin and astonishment were unequaled. Napoleon had deter- ' Pe.2±fj:#uvaiatf#IHwlBIMR^KHAB[lafl THE MERCURY. 263 mined to get funds to carry on his war with England, to dis-pose of the whole of Louisiana, quite independently of any de-sires or wishes on our part. We see now, as we said in the beginning, our acquisition of Louisiana, and hence our great-ness, depends on the- long struggle between England and France. Napoleon had determined to do this without in the least consulting the Chambers or people of France. In so doing he was risking exile or even his life. His brothers, therefore, were greatly concerned and determined to prevent him from doing this. They formed a plan by which Lucien was to see Napoleon first, and if possible break the ice or lead the conver-sation to Louisiana, and then Joseph was to appear; in this way Napoleon would not suspect their collusion. Lucien found Napoleon in his perfumed bath. He tried to broach the Loui-siana topic, but Napoleon always talked about something else. Finally it was time for Napoleon to leave his bath and they had not reached the Louisiana subject. At this point Joseph knocked for admittance. Napoleon said he would stay in his bath a quarter of an hour longer and had him admitted. Lu-cien whispered to him that he had not yet broached the sub-ject. A stormy interview followed, only Napoleon's shaggy locks and gleaming eyes were above water. Their tones reached a very excited pitch and Joseph rushed at Napoleon. And here occurred the wonderful bath-room incident. Napoleon was so angered that he raised himself from the water and then suddenly fell back, giving Joseph a good ducking. Lucien then followed with a quotation from the Aeneid, which drew the electricity from the cloud and discharged it harmlessly. Then when Joseph had withdrawn, followed an almost equally stormy interview with Lucien. But this only hastened the matter, Na-poleon being anxious to commence his war with England. Words cannot describe the labor and extent oi the work which Livingston accomplished. He won the admiration and respect of Napoleon and Talleyrand. One of his duties was to obtain payment of the spoiliation claims. He wrote a series of papers elaborately setting forth the expediency for France to 264 THE MERCURY. dispose of New Orleans and the Floridas to us. These, per-haps, won him the respect of Napoleon. Far in advance of other statesmen he even showed that it would be best for France to sell us that part of Louisiana north of the Arkansas River, which turned out to be the best part of the bargain, in order to separate Canada or the British'from her province. Then, too, he had to deal with Napoleon, who would accept no counsel, and the wily Talleyrand. Furthermore, he did not have very definite instructions. But, as said in the beginning, we would never have gotten Louisiana by any efforts of Livingston or anybody else, had not Napoleon desired to dispose of it. Now when Livingston had all but accomplished his task, Napoleon offered the whole of Louisiana, and Monroe came in over Livingston. Napoleon had another object in selling Louisiana. If he should retain it, England might, through her all-powerful navy, wrest it from him ; while .in selling it to America, he would make a power which one day would humble England. Marbois, the French agent, and Livingston and Monroe were on very friendly terms, which greatly facilitated matters. Of course our commissioners never dreamed of the whole of Lou-isiana, but Livingston agreed to take it, and three treaties were made: 1. As to the cession; 2. As to the price, and 3. As to the spoiliation claims. It cost us #1 5,000,000, minus the spoli-ation claims. As Jefferson was a strict constructionist, he really overstepped his power in his own opinion. A storm of opposition arose which was gradually overcome. We have not time to discuss this opposition or the results, but will merely state a few of the results: (l) it secured to us the port of New Orleans, the entire control of the Mississippi, and it doubled the area of the United States ; (2) it strengthened the bond of Union in the Southwest; (3) it gave new force to arguments for internal improvements; (4) finally, it weakened strict con-struction and encouraged the interpretation of the Constitution according to the spirit and not the letter. - THE MERCURV. 265 RELIGION AND SOLITUDE. SAMUBI. E. SMITH, '07. WHEN these terms are considered in the sense in which they are ordinarily used, there seems to be a certain impropriety in using them together. The average man thinks of religion as something tangible. Not infrequently is the re-mark made concerning someone that he has very little religion; •which statement would point to the fact that religion is often considered as a kind of veneer, which can be placed over the lives of men for the instruction and helping of those about them. How then can solitude, which implies a separation from men have any relation to religion ? The preceding idea of religion is a very superficial one, although it is widely accepted. Religion has a deeper significance ; it is as its root meaning implies "a thinking again;" it is potential rather than kinetic •energy; it is z;«planted and never /m«jplanted into an indi-vidual. Such is the quality that is to be considered in connec-tion with solitude. All religions have had their origin in solitude. Ab'ram was sent by God into the eastern wilderness ; Moses was alone with Jehovah on Sinai; David had much time for reflection while tending his flock; the prophets were children of the desert; John Baptist was a son of the wilderness; and the Saviour of the world had his forty days, and very often during his active ministry he felt the loneliness of the midnight hour. Thus, in •solitude, there sprang forth from the souls of these men the principles which are the foundation stones of Christianity. Mohammedanism had its beginning in a cave a few miles from Mecca. Mohammed left the busy city and retired to that lonely spot for days at a time. He said that it was there the angel Gabriel appeared to him and told him of heavenly things which he should make known to his fellow-men. The new faith spread over many a mile of sea and land until it reached the rock of Gibraltar, and the Moslem hordes were dreaded in the great cities of Europe. Such was the power of the religion which was conceived of in the lonely cave near Mecca. As 266 THE MERCURY. the beginnings of great religions are studied it is found that all burst forth in solitude. Solitude has been the conserving force of every religion. The lonely vigil, the contemplations on divine things, has done more than the preacher and sword in keeping alive the great religions of the world. The monk in his gloomy cell, who-spent almost countless hours in meditation and fervent devotion,, gave the impetus which made the Roman Church the mighty agent which it has been. Even the savage races of mankinJ can be called upon to furnish examples. Without a doubt the crude religion of the American Indian was kept up by the in-fluence of solitude. In his solitary journey through the forest he saw his religions in the rocks and trees and streams. Where the Indians were deprived of their solitude by the advent of the white man, almost immediately they lost their faith in the Great Spirit. Christianity, today, shows the relation between" religion and solitude. The greatest preachers are those who-spend the most time apart from the rush of the world; the most truly religious are those who have spent many an hour in solitude. When the lives of the great ministers of our country-are considered, it is found that nearly all of them were brought up in the country, where the youth is compelled to spend a great portion of his time with nothing to keep him company but the voices of nature. Indeed, it can be said that every re-ligion enjoins its devotees to spend a part of each day in soli-tude. -Thus religion and solitude are very closely'related, and one is inclined to speculate as to the grounds on which this relation) exists. There must be solitude before religion can manifest itself. To understand how this can be true it is imperative that religion should be defined with the greatest precision. Al-ready it has been shown that it is not a tangible thing. But the definition must not stop with this statement. Religion is intuitive; it is a divine essence rising up in the sub-conscious-mind ; it is a spark which shows unmistakably that man is in-deed a son of the Infinite. Thus the religious impulse of the lowest savage is just as strong as is the desire of the civilized 1.1,. ,11. THE MERCURY. 267 man to worship a supreme being. Religion, lying as it does in the sub-conscious mind of man, how can it manifest itself unless there is solitude during which it can lise up? But this spark of the Infinite, religion, which abides in the darkest chamber of the soul, is a peculiar thing. If it is continually-forced back by the authority of the conscious mind, it at length goes out forever, and man is left destitute of the greatest power of his existence. Such a state of affairs does not often come to pass, but it can happen. But how can one conceive of this infinite spark as perishing? It is merely a small part of the great Infinity, which may have a million finite parts lost, as it were by atrophy, and yet remain the same. If, on the other hand, the divine spark is allowed to rise into the conscious mind, it fires the imagination and intensifies every purpose of the man. In the light of this reasoning one can easily see that solitude is of vital importance to religion. Thus, as religion is considered in its true nature, it is seen that religion and solitude are supplementary to each other. Re-ligions have sprung forth in solitude and have been kept alive through its influence. To those accepting the superficial view of religion, many ot the inner workings are inexplicable. For example, they cannot account for the fact that many a man turns to religion on a sick bed, or when he is suddenly removed from the walks of men into the solitude of a wilderness. But those who appreciate its hidden meaning understand that such conduct is due to the divine element which has sprung up dur-ing the solitary hours. Such is the relation of these two terms made plain, which seem at the first glance to be so foreign to each other. 268 THE MERCURY. THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF A MILLIONAIRE. [Contributed for the Pen and Sword Ptize Essay contest.'] WHEN Columbus discovered this new world, he little knew that he was opening to the known world the greatest discovery of that or any other age. When three centur-ies later George Washington fought for the freedom of the colonies and, having succeeded in that, helped organize and guide the thirteen colonies on the road of progress, even he with his almost prophetic insight could not foresee what a won-derful future was in store for them. Now this lusty young giant stands with his feet firmly planted on the Isthmus of Panama, his bulk reaching from Ocean to Ocean, from Canada to the Gulf, a hand reached eastward in the Philippines, another extending into the frozen north, Alaska. Covered with farms and forests, factories and cities, honeycombed with mines, bound in the bonds of fraternal friendship by almost two hundred thousand miles of railroad, inhabited by a people the most pro-gressive and civilized of any living; is it any wonder that with all these advantages, natural and artificial, he has rapidly forged to the front in riches also. The natural advantages sur-pass those of all Europe. Now in the midst of this amazing national growth there has been a wonderful growth in private riches. When the country was young and poor the people were also poor. With the rapid settling of the West, the opening of coal and iron mines, the invention of the locomotive and the steamboat, the wealth of individuals rapidly increased. Yet up until the Civil War huge private fortunes might be counted on the fingers of one hand. But after the Civil War begins the period of inventive and industrial advancement, the age of the millionaire. Now a millionaire is a man who by inheritance, in-dustry and economy or by other means too numerous to men-tion, has become possessed of a million dollars or its equivalent. He may have come by this sum honestly or dishonestly but it is the responsibility which comes with this sum of money of which we will take notice. iPIMMIfBm^MW THE MERCURY. 269 Let us take the millionaire from boyhood. He is probably no brighter, no different in outside appearance than the average run of boys, yet by saving a dollar where the other man spends two, by judicious investment where money will the most surely and rapidly increase, these by the time he has reached manhood have made him a comparatively wealthy man. Of course no matter what his morals, his ability to earn money has been held up as a model to other struggling youths, his past has been re-hearsed by the Oldest Inhabitant, boyhood chums are proud to call him by name, so by his example many are willing to jise or fall. Here his responsibility as a moral factor begins. All the while his fortune is increasing until some day when he "takes stock" he finds he is a millionaire. If he is not vastly different from the majority of us, he begins to get a little more exclusive and distant. His old acquaintances gradually fall away and he seeks new friendships among men of his own business standing. If he is selfmade there are no doubt a few rough corners to be smoothed down and polished up in order that he may not appear at a disadvantage among his fellows. This process is usually one of marriage. All this time he is looming larger and larger in the public eye and more and more do newspapers devote space to his goings and comings. Indeed he has no privacy, his every act is under the scrutiny of a lynx eyed public. Now let us glance at a few calamities for which the million-aires of this country may be justly held responsible. There was a time when ability was the measure of success. The time also was when thrift was considered a virtue. Once our poli-tics were pure and uncorrupted. Equality between men as spoken of in the Constitution was not a joke. Honesty in business was a maxim. Human life was regarded as precious not many decades since. Divorce was synonymous with dis-grace. In a word the American people have seen the day when virtue, not money, was the goal of every honest man's ambition. Now all this is changed. Why ? Who are respon-sible for the change? When men like Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Seward, Lincoln, , I : , 27o THE MERCURY. Douglass and others thundered in our legislative halls, there was no thought of their money. The taste of the people had not been debauched by a bribed press, which by skillfully ad-vertising the merits of their customer and belittling the ability of his opponent render it almost impossible for a poor man to secure high office. For example look at our Senate. No men of tremendous personality and ability sit in seats made famous by their predecessors. No orators arise and hold their hearers spellbound by the power of their oratory. No indeed. Instead there sit in our once glorious Senate a body of men whose money has been the open sesame to halls to which their brains would have been found an insurmountable barrier. This ignoble condition is laid at the doors of the millionaires. Again, what has changed a people from a race thrifty and economical, always striving (and usually succeeding) to live within their income, into a people rushing, with a frenzy that amounts to madness almost, in pursuit of the Almighty Dollar? Isn't it the extravagance of the rich from whom the people model their deportment? Million-dollar homes, yachts, autos, balls, operas and the like have such an irresistible attraction for the majority ot people that it is only a man of the most in-flexible will power who can live his life undisturbed by the glitter of much gold. So overwhelming is the desire to possess the fixtures enumerated above that men throw all virtues and vices aside, in order-to secure them. Robbery, embezzlement, fraud and even murder are the agents used in extreme cases. The ostentation of the millionaire is responsible for this. In the magazines of the past year there have been a number of articles pro and con as to whether we have an American Aristocracy. Our Constitution says all men are created free and equal and for almost one hundred years this doctrine was held sacred and we prospered. But with the coming of the millionaire all that was changed. Believing that because they owned more valuable real estate and more gilt-edged bonds than their poor neighbor, they were of superior clay, our mil-lionaires began to ape the degenerate though genteel aristo-cracy of Europe. And those who have occasion and oppor- THE MERCURY. 271 tunity to observe say that they have aped not too wisely but too well. Forgetting that a cad is not a gentleman, that cul-ture, education and brains, not money, give grace and elegance in speech and deportment, some of our would be Aristocrats pose and strut with an affectation of superiority that would be insufferable, were it not so ridiculous. So many owners of >much money gladly take the responsibility for opening the breach of class between man and man. Joseph Folk, swept into the Governor's Chair by a tidal wave ■of reform votes, reached his position by the conviction of bood-lers in the city of St. Louis. When Folk began his now famous •investigation, whom did he find were the bribers, lawbreakers and corruptors of public morality ? They were rich men, the ■financial backbone of St. Louis. It is the same everywhere. The wealthy, the millionaires, have bought outright whole ■city councils, legislatures, judges and have even carried their infamous designs into the nation's lawmakers themselves. In-deed the venal character of our judges have caused the poor to give up all hope of justice when combatted by a man of wealth. And in business men eminently respectable, men above re-proach, lend their names and influence to schemes which, if attempted by an ordinary gold-brick speculator or bunco steerer, would result in that worthy rusticating behind the bars of some penal institution. But because there are millions in it, it is considered high finance to unload Lake Superior, U. S. Ship-building, Amalgamated Copper and Bay State Gas, on a public dazzled by the prospect of sure dividends which never come; and rendered trustful by an eminently respectable directorate. Year by year the man of the monster death has been feeding thousands of victims through the negligence and greed of corpor-ations. This number has increased so rapidly that the President thought it worthy of mention in his last message to Congress. It was high time; men in mills have been burned, maimed, crushed, torn and mutilated; either because the price of their work was so low that they had to constantly work under the •shadow of violent death, or because the owner, squeezing every last cent, refused to place safeguards around death-traps. So : 272 THE MERCURY. long as a mill, railroad or factory pays dividends, what matters it how many poor wretches are ground to fragments, providing: their death does not entail any extra expense on the firm P This criminal disregard of human life does not confine itself to-a purely impersonal matter like a mill or factory. It takes a form of amusement when reckless men crazed with the mad-ness of much money hurl giant automobiles through crowded city streets, at express-train speed. The desire to make a dol-lar was never better illustrated than in the case of a Western) railroad which, by removing a switch-light to save the oilr caused a wreck which hurled scores of human beings into eter-nity. Last but not least, look at the responsibility which million-aires bear to the gravest danger which threatens us at the pres-ent day. We will consider divorce, because the divorce evil1 had its inception among the moneyed class in this country. The home is the bulwark of all lands and all peoples. Where the home is sacred there courage, fidelity and all kindred vir-tues flourish. There also are found the brightest ideals. Ir* this country in the last ten years there has been a flood of divorces so overwhelming that almost all churches have taken* steps to check the evil. On the most trifling charges the bondr which should bind men and women for life, has been rudely snapped asunder, and all over the land we see the distressing; sight of homes desolated and families scattered. Beyond any doubt the millionaires must be held accountable for this. In> New York the so called Four Hundred has more divorces to-the square inch than any similar body of people in this country. Since New York sets the fashions and the rest of the country sheepishly follows, this fashion soon became the reigning fad" in Smart (?) Sets. Other States anxious to keep in the proces-sion enacted lax divorce laws until South Dakota made six-months residence equivalent to divorce. This is the greatest responsibility which rests on the shoulders of our millionaires. Now for a summing up of the misdeeds for which our moneyed men must some day suffer. Overlooking the fact that in our belief no man is fit for heaven who selfishly spends- .MM _ . THE MERCURV. 273 forty thousand dollars a year on himself, what have millionaires individually and collectively done ? They have corrupted our politics, made bare money the criterion of success, destroyed the desire for thrift and economy by lavish expenditure, en-couraged dishonesty directly and indirectly, made a joke of equality between man and man, have made divorce so common that it excites almost no comment, have encouraged race sui-cide and have by gifts of money, dishonestly earned, pauperized ■a portion of our people. They have lowered the ideals which made this republic possible. In a word, if the people have not degenerated under the paralyzing influence of huge fortunes, it is because the heart of the people beats time, in spite of all inducements to the contrary. If they have degenerated it is because of the examples cited above. And weighing all these facts, taking into consideration the good done by much money, we are led to believe, half unwillingly, that it would have been better to have held fast to the conservative principles which ruled in the days of our grand-fathers. A more contented, happy people we should certainly be in place of a nation of vulgar money-grabbers. We would not, of course, have been a world power, with a navy to sweep the seas; but we would have been more respected and feared than we are now. And last and most important, we would have been consistent to the high ideals of which we gave promise in our National Youth. But it is done, our course is changed, time alone can tell what the future has in store for us. As a body our millionaires have much to answer for. Yet setting our faces to the right, let us all in a simple, unassuming way do what destiny has marked for us and all will yet be well with the grandest republic on «arth. ■■■■■■Hi THE MERCURY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class Matter VOL. XIII GETTYSBURG, PA., FEBRUARY, 1905 No. 8 Editor-in-chief C. EDWIN BUTLER, '05 Exchange Editor CHARLES GAUGER, '05 Business Manager A. L. DILLENBECK, '05 Asst. Business Manager JOHN M. VAN DOREN, '06 Associate Editors H. C. BRILLHART, '06 ALBERT BILLHEIMER, '06 H. BRUA CAMPBELL, '06 Advisory Board PROF. J. A. HIMES, LITT.D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M.D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D.D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Busi-ness Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. How swiftly the months pass ! One after another in endless succession they come and go, yea even with this issue the MERCURY adds another year to its history and closes forever the pages of another volume. If it has been any improvement over its predecessor, if it records with any reasonable precision the literary attainments of the student body, and if it is worthy of preservation in the archives of the College, then our labor has not been bought without a price and the high mark, to which we have been endeavoring to approach, has not been entirely missed. As the last line and the last word is written and the time for our departure is come, we go, but not until our faithful contri-butors, our patrons and loyal friends, than which there are none more loyal, are assured of our sincere gratitude and apprecia-tion. THE MERCURY. I 275 Without you our existence would have been impossible, with you the most happy relation has been enjoyed. If we have merited commendation the glory is to you, if censure, we are the chief offenders, and by the much importunity we invite all criticism to be placed to our credit. We bequeath not un-willingly to the associate and assistant staff a very generous portion of this rich legacy—if it may not improperly be so termed. That the termination of the close relation as a staff and as friends of the staff has inevitably come we regret but at the same time remember the sweet incense which the memory of the past year will send so often floating through our minds. This alone is reward enough and for our efforts a princely re-compense. Not even the trained minds of philosophers would be able to divine the origination of the .mysterious ideas and current rumors which are frequently promulgated without authority or xredence. For the benefit of those who may not know it, we announce that a few philosophic prodigies have been secured and are really matriculated with the student body, though the MERCURY has been unfortunate enough not to have had the honor to publish any of their esoteric cogitations, and even they would not perhaps venture a solution. The hypothesis nevertheless is agitated and really believed by some that the MERCURY will cease to be the organ of the College Literary Societies ; will cease to be a medium for the publication of the Literature of merit in the College; will cease to print the different prize essays and preserve them for future reference; in fine will cease to exist after this issue. We have said, just where such incongruous fancies first originated seems to be somewhat of a mystery. The claims are unfounded from the start but from some inexplicable cause they have seized many of the students. As our college publica-tions, unfortunately, are wholly student papers their existence of course depends on the pleasure of said body. The position we presume to maintain with regard to the continuance, dis-continuance or uniting with our weekly we will not define here 276 THE MERCURY. for obvious reasons. The decision of such a grave problem should receive the careful, thoughtful and deliberate attention of the members of our literary societies. In any event the staff deems it advisible to lay down here the present status of affairs for the benefit of those who are in-tensely interested and not now of the student body. Financially the Journal is by no means embarrassed. If there be an en-cumbrance at all, it will be insignificant. Generally a surplus over and above current expenses has been handed down from manager to manager, if this indicates anything. Relerring to the numbers of the magazine now on file, this volume is not believed to be inferior to its antecedents, yet we are not pre-sumptuous enough to flatter ourselves with its superiority. Who have "fought and bled" for it in the years past have writ-ten us very encouraging letters which have been voluntary contributions on their part. Generally speaking, we do know the students of the College have not supported the magazine by liberal literary contribu-tions but we believe since many other interests which formerly slumbered are now throbbing with life and activity, the MER-CURY will also within a comparatively short time receive its due apportionment of interest and enthusiasm. EXCHANGES. With this issue of THE MERCURY the "Ex-man's" qurll will be handed down to his successor. We desire to take this our last opportunity to extend our farewell greeting to all of our exchanges. Realizing that criticism, to be essential to good work, must be both appreciative and corrective, it need not necessarily be PERFECT criticism—we have endeavored to make this the cri-terion for our criticisms. If we have given offense by any un-just remarks, we ask pardon; if not and you have profited by our suggestions, give us the praise. If we have praised you and done it honestly, yours is the satisfaction, ours is the ap-preciation. In either case, believe us to have done it in a kindly spirit of helpfulness. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. FURNITURE Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames. Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. * Telephone No. 97. I3C. 23. H3en.a.er 37 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. THE STEWART & STEEN CO. College Engravers cund (Printers 1034 Arch St., Philadelphia, Pa. 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Anadolu, bin yıllar boyunca birçok medeniyete ev sahipliği yapmış, birçok kültürü, birçok dili bünyesinde barındırmış, prehistorik dönemlerden günümüze insanlara yurt olmuş toprak parçasıdır. XIX. yüzyılın başlarından itibaren Batılı arkeologların ilgisini çeken bu topraklar, XX. yüzyılın ortaları ile Sualtı Arkeologlarının ilgisini çekmeye başlamıştır. Özellikle sualtı araştırmaları Anadolu'nun güney ve batı kıyılarında yoğunlaşmıştır. Marmara Denizi'nde Marmara Adası etrafında, Küçükçekmece Gölü'nde sualtı araştırmaları yapılırken, Güney Marmara kıyılarında sadece 2008 yılında Kyzikos (Erdek)'te sualtı çalışmaları gerçekleştirilmiştir. Marmara Denizi, özellikle günümüzden 7100 yıl önce Ege ve Karadeniz ile birleşmesinden sonra önemini arttırmıştır. Bu tarihten sonra, Karadeniz'in kuzeyindeki medeniyetler ile Akdeniz medeniyetleri arasında bir köprü vazifesi görmüştür. Neolitik dönemden itibaren çevresinde yaşam izleri tespit edilen Marmara Denizi, özellikle kolonizasyon hareketlerinden sonra bir çok kente ev sahipliği yapmıştır. Çanakkale Boğazı üzerinden Marmara Denizi'ne giren Akdeniz medeniyetleri Marmara Denizi kıyılarında koloni kentleri kurmuşlardır. Marmara Denizi'nin güney kıyıları uzun yıllar araştırmacıların dikkatini çekmeyi beklemiştir. Anadolu topraklarının diğer bölümleri ile karşılaştırıldığında, Güney Marmara kıyılarının ne kadar boşlandığı daha net anlaşılmaktadır. Bu sebep ile, bu çalışmanın alanı olarak Güney Marmara bölgesinin antik limanları seçilmiştir. Güney Marmara kıyılarında dört farklı ilin (Çanakkale, Balıkesir, Bursa, Yalova) sınırları mevcuttur. Bakanlık her çalışma döneminde bir il için çalışma izni vermektedir. Bir dönemde bir ilin kıyı şeridinin araştırılması imkansız olduğu için çalışmamız yalnızca Bursa il sınırları içerisindeki antik limanlar ile sınırlandırılmıştır. Marmara Denizi'ndeki 135 kilometrelik Bursa kıyılarının yanı sıra İznik ve Uluabat göllerinin kıyıları da taranmıştır. Çalışmalarımıza başlamadan önce tüm antik kaynaklar, geç dönem seyyahları ve modern araştırmacılardan bölge ile ilgili bilgiler derlenmiştir. Strabon, Herodotos, Pseudo-Skylaks, Apollonius Rhodius, Xenephon, Yaşlı Plinius, Dio Chysostum, Claudius Ptolemy, Stephanos Byzantinos, Pomponius Mela ve Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus gibi bölge hakkında bilgi veren antik yazarlar incelenmiştir. Ayrıca, Seyyid Muradi, İbn Battuta, Polonya'lı Simeon, Evliya Çelebi, Jean Thevenot, Richard Pockocke ve Charles Texier gibi seyyahların bölge limanları ve liman kentleri üzerlerine yazdığı bilgiler toplanmış ve araştırmalar esnasında yol gösterici olarak göz önünde tutulmuştur. Tüm bu kaynaklarda, özellikle kıyı kentleri ve liman yapıları üzerinde durulmuştur. Özellikle deniz ticaretinin başladığı dönemlerden itibaren, antik limanlar kent bölünmesi içinde en önemli noktalar konumuna gelmişlerdir. Ticaretin kentte başladığı ilk yer olmaları nedeni ile yaşamın direkt içinde olmuşlardır. Limanlar, gemilerin barınmalarına, yük alıp boşaltmalarına, yolcu indirip bindirmelerine yarayan doğal veya yapay sığınaklardır. Kente gelen tüccarların ilk ve son gördükleri yer limanlardır. Fakat, bu kadar önemli bir konumda olmalarına rağmen, araştırmacılar tarafından hak ettiği önemi yıllar boyunca görmemişlerdir. Bugüne kadar Anadolu kıyılarında limanlar üzerine yapılan çalışmaların sayısı bunu göstermektedir. Çalışma konumuz olan Bursa ili kıyılarında bugüne kadar yapılmış bir çalışma bulunmamaktadır. İnsan elinden çıkmış olan bilinen en eski su taşıtı M.Ö. 6000 yıllarına tarihlenirken, bilinen en eski liman yapısı M.Ö. 3000'lere tarihlenmektedir. İnsanoğlunun artan ihtiyaçları doğrultusunda kullandıkları su taşıtlarının ebatlarının büyümesi neticesinde yerleşimlerde deniz taşıtlarını koruyacak güvenli alanlara ihtiyaç doğmuştur. Gemilerin karaya çekilemeyecek boyuta gelmelerinden ve sualtında inşa fırsatı veren hidrolik çimentonun kullanılması ile liman yapıları karşımıza çıkmaya başlamıştır. Limanlar, kentlerin kuruldukları yerlere göre farklı şekillerde inşa edilmişlerdir. Bulundukları yere göre ve işlevlerine göre limanları iki ayrı başlık altında gruplamak mümkündür. Bulundukları yere göre, Deniz Limanları ve Tatlı Su Limanları olarak adlandırılmışlardır. Deniz Limanları ise yine kendi içinde, kıyı şeridinin farklılık göstermesi nedeni ile doğal veya yapay limanlar olarak ikiye ayrılırlar. Göl, nehir gibi tatlı suların kıyı şeritlerinin düz olması nedeniyle bilinen tüm tatlı su limanları yapaydır. Bir limanın yapay veya doğal liman olmasını belirleyen faktör liman havzasının inşa şeklidir. Doğal limanlar, koylarda inşa edildiği için liman olarak koyun su havzası kullanılmıştır. Yapay limanlarda ise, su havzası dalgakıran veya mendirekler yardımı ile yapılmaktadır. Ayrıca antik limanlar fonksiyonlarına göre askeri limanlar, ticari limanlar ve özel limanlar olarak üç başlık altında toplamak mümkündür. Dünya üzerindeki liman araştırmaları XX. yüzyılın başlarında başlamıştır. Anadolu kıyılarında ilk araştırmalar ise 1960'dan sonra başlamaktadır. Anadolu kıyılarında bugüne kadar Phaselis, Limantepe, Myndos, Kyzikos ve Küçükçekmece göllerinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Fakat son 20 yıl içerisinde üniversitelerde yüksek lisans ve doktora seviyelerinde liman araştırmalarının yapılması gelecek için umut vaat edicidir. Bursa kıyıları, Anadolu toprakları gibi birçok medeniyete ev sahipliği yapmıştır. Antik kaynaklardan bildiğimiz kadarı ile bölgede oturan en eski medeniye Bebrklerdir. Bölgede genel olarak yaşayan halk Trak kökenli halklardır. Mysialılar, Frigyalılar ve Bithynialılar arasında bölgede bir hakimiyet savaşı söz konusudur. Kimi zaman Bursa kıyı şeridi Mysialıların kontrolüne geçerken, kimi zaman Bithynialılar kontrolünde olmuştur. Kimi antik kaynağa göre Kios (Gemlik) Mysia kenti iken, kimine göre Phygia, kimine göre ise Bithynia topraklarındadır. Persler M.Ö. 547 yılında Lidya Krallığı'nı yok edince bölgeye hakim olmuşlardır. Perslerin tüm Anadolu'da uzun yıllar hakimiyetlerinden söz etmek mümkündür. Fakat, M.Ö. V. yüzyılın ortasından sonra Bursa kıyıları da dahil olmak üzere, Marmara Denizi'nin güney kıyılarında Yunanlıların hakim olduğu bilinmektedir. Büyük İskender'in M.Ö. 333 yılında Anadolu'ya girmesi ile Perslerin Anadolu'daki hakimiyetleri yok olmuştur. İskender, Bithynia üzerine saldırı yapsa da, burası ile fazla ilgilenmeyerek Anadolu içlerine yürüyüşüne devam etmiştir. M.Ö. 202 yılına kadar Bursa ilindeki Kios, Myrleia gibi önemli yerleşimler bu dönemde kent devletleri statüsünde gözükmektedir. M.Ö. 202 yılında Prusias tarafından yeniden inşa edilen şehirler Bithynia Krallığı hakimiyetine girmişlerdir. M.Ö. 75/74 yılında Bithynia toprakları miras yolu ile Roma İmparatorluğu'na devredilmiştir. Bu dönemde Mithradates ile Pompeius arasında bölge için önemli mücadeleler olmuştur. Bursa kıyılarında kısa bir süre Mithradates'in egemenliği söz konusu olsa da, M.Ö. 63 yılından sonra ise Roma İmparatorluğu hakimiyetindedir. M.S. 395 yılında Roma İmparatorluğu'nun ikiye bölünmesinden sonra Bursa ili kıyılarındaki yerleşimlerde Doğu Roma İmparatorluğu hakimiyetine girmişlerdir. Uzun yıllar Bizans (Doğu Roma) İmparatorluğu hakimiyetinde kalan kıyı şeridi yerleşimleri, M.S. 1320'den sonra Osmanlı İmparatorluğu hakimiyetine girmişlerdir. Kolonizasyon hareketleri sonrası Marmara Denizi'nde ticari bir hareketlilik söz konusu olmuştur. Çanakkale Boğazı üzerinden Marmara Denizi'ne giren halklar yeni koloni kentleri kurmuşlardır. Bu kurulan kentler ve siyasi olaylar hakkındaki bilgiler deniz ticaret rotalarını çizmemize yardımcı olmuştur. Antik dönemde denizciler istedikleri zaman sefer yapamıyorlardı. M.S. IV. yüzyılın sonlarında yaşamış olan antik yazar Vagetius denizcilerin sefer takvimi hakkında bilgi vermektedir. Vagetius'a göre Antik Dönem denizciliği için meteoroloji ve hakim rüzgarlar oldukça önemlidir. Gemilerin sefer yapmalarına uygun belirli tarihler mevcuttur. Denizin şiddeti ve durumu tüm yıl sefer yapılmasına imkan sağlamamaktadır. 27 Mayıs'tan 14 Eylül'e kadar sefer yapmak güvenli iken, bu tarihten itibaren yaklaşık 11 Kasım tarihlerine kadar sefer için hava şartları ve denizler şüpheli ve tehlikelidir. 11 Kasım'dan 10 Mart'a kadar ise denizlerin tamamen sefere uygun olmadığından bahsetmektedir. Denizciler, uygun hava şartları için sefer mevsimini beklemek zorundaydılar. M.S. XVII. yüzyılda da Vagetius'un verdiği tarihler sefer için geçerliliğini korumaktadır. 1775-1776 yılındaki Seyir Defteri'nde Osmanlı gemilerinin Nisan – Kasım ayları arasında sefer yaptığı anlaşılmaktadır. Vagetius'un bahsettiği tarihlerden günümüze yaklaşık 1500 yıl geçmesine ve gelişen gemi teknolojilerine rağmen, Marmara Denizi'nde Mudanya – İstanbul seferini yapan gemiler hava şartları nedeni ile en çok Kasım - Mart aylarında iptal edilmektedir. M.S. IV. yüzyıl ile M.Ö. VII. yüzyıl arasında coğrafyada ve iklim kuşaklarında çok fazla değişiklik olmadığına göre, Vagetius'un vermiş olduğu dönemlerin VII. yüzyıldan itibaren geçerli olduğunu düşünmek yanlış olmayacaktır. Antik kaynaklara göre, kurulan ilk koloni kentleri Marmara Denizi'nin güney kıyılarında kurulmuştur. M.Ö. 756 yılında Kyzikos, M.Ö. 709 yılında Parion, M.Ö. 712 yılında Astacus, Marmara Denizi'ndeki koloni kentlerinin ilk öncüleridir. Kios'un kuruluşu ise M.Ö. 627 yılına tarihlenmektedir. Marmara Denizi'nin kuzey kıyılarında yer alan, Chalkedon M.Ö. 685'te, Selymbria M.Ö. 668'den önce, Byzantium M.Ö. 668'te, Perinthos M.Ö. 602'de, Thracia Chersonesus (Gelibolu) M.Ö. 561'de kolonileştirilmişlerdir. Marmara Denizi'ndeki kolonizasyon hareketlerine baktığımızda Çanakkale Boğazı'ndan Marmara Denizi'ne girildikten sonra en erken koloni kentlerinin Marmara'nın güney kıyılarında kurulduğu görülmüştür. Bu da güney kıyılarında bir ticaretin olduğunu kabul etmemize nedendir. M.Ö. V. yüzyılda dönemin önemli deniz gücü Atina liderliğinde, Perslere karşı ortak mücadele etmek amacı ile Delos Birliği kurulmuştur. Birliğin ilk işi Çanakkale Boğazı'nı ve Marmara kıyılarını Perslerden temizlemek olmuştur. M.Ö. V. Yüzyıldaki deniz ticareti ile ilgili elimizdeki en önemli arkeolojik verilerin başında Atina Vergi Listeleri gelmektedir. Bu listelerde Attika-Delos Deniz Birliği'ne vergi veren kentler ve vergi oranları gözükmektedir. Buna göre Marmara Denizi kıyısında vergi veren birçok kentin adı ile karşılaşmaktayız. Bu kentlerden bazılarının vergi oranları da gözükmektedir. Bu listelere göre, Marmara Denizi'nin güney kıyılarında kurulmuş olan Parion 1 talent, Procennesos 3 talent, Kyzikos 9 talent, Kios 1000 drahmi, Astacus 1 talent 300 drahmi vergi verir iken, kuzey kıyılarındaki Perinthos 10 talent, Selymbria 6 talent, Byzantium 15 talent, Chalcedon 7 talent vergi vermektedir. Vergi oranlarının şehirlerin ekonomik durumu ile doğru orantılı olduğu düşünülürse, M.Ö. V. yüzyılda kuzey kıyılardaki kentlerin güney kıyılarındaki kentlerden daha zengin olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Bu gelişmiş ekonomi bize dönemin deniz ticaret rotalarını da vermektedir. Marmara Denizi'nin ticaret rotaları M.Ö. VIII. yüzyıl içerisinde güney kıyılarında daha aktif iken, M.Ö. V. yüzyıl ile birlikte ana ticaret rotası kuzey kıyılarına kaymıştır. Bu dönemde, Marmara Denizi'nin hakimiyeti tamamen Perslerin elinde gözükmektedir. Bu dönem Persler ile Yunanlıların büyük mücadeleleri vardır. Marmara Denizi'nin bir Pers gölü haline gelmesi nedeni ile Pers satraplığına bağlı tüm kıyılarda özgürce bir dolaşımdan söz etmek olasıdır. M.Ö. V. yüzyılın ortasından sonra Marmara Denizi de dahil olmak üzere Ege Denizi kıyılarında Attika Delos Deniz Birliği'nin etkisi gözükmektedir. Fakat Anadolu'daki Pers varlığı Marmara Denizi'ndeki ticaret yollarını güney kıyılarından uzak tutmuş olmalıdır. M.Ö. IV. yüzyılın sonlarında özellikle Kios'un bastırdığı altın sikkeleri kentin ekonomisinin iyiliğine işaret etmektedir. Bu da, Bursa ili topraklarındaki kentlerinde bu dönemde ticaret yolları üzerinde bulunduğunu göstermektedir. Roma Dönemi'nde tüm Marmara Denizi kıyıları Roma İmparatorluğu güvencesi altına alınmıştır. Kuzeyde Perinthos, bölgenin en önemli limanı ve Via Egnatia yolunun başlangıç noktasıdır. Ayrıca kent, Roma ordularının geçiş istasyonu ve toplanma noktası olarak oldukça önemli bir konumda bulunmaktadır. Roma dönemi kentlerine ve bölgedeki siyasi olaylara göz attığımızda Marmara'nın güney kıyıları çok daha problemlidir. Özellikle Mitridates VI'nın Bithynia kıyılarında Romalılara üstünlük kurması ve Nikaia (İznik), Mryleia (Mudanya) ve Kios (Gemlik) gibi kıyı kentlerini ele geçirmesi nedeni ile bu bölge Romalılar için ticarete elverişsiz duruma gelmiştir. M.Ö. 74 yılında Bithynia topaklarının vasiyet yolu ile Roma İmparatorluğuna bağlanmış ve M.Ö. I. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Apameia, "Colonia Iulia Concordia Apamea" ismi ile bir Roma kolonisi olmuştur. Güney kıyıları da güvenlik altına alındıktan sonra tüm Marmara Denizi kıyıları ticarete elverişli duruma gelmiş olmalıdır. Perinthos'ta bulunan ve M.S. III. Yüzyıla tarihlenen bir yazıt Roma döneminde Perinthos ile Apameia'nın iyi ilişkiler içinde olduğunu, hatta Perinthos'ta "Apameia'yı Sevenler Cemiyeti" olduğunu göstermektedir. Bu dönemde bütün Marmara Denizi sınırları içerisinde bir ticaretin olduğu görülmektedir. Ayrıca Romalıların Marmara Denizi'nin iki yanında birer koloni kurması ve bu kolonilerin irtibatta olmaları bir tesadüf olmamalıdır. Perinthos'un Via Egnatia ile Roma ve Trakya kentlerine bağlandığı gibi, Colonia Iulia Concordia Apameia'nın da Anadolu içleri ile Prusa üzerinden bağlantısı vardır. Tüm bu veriler ışığında, M.Ö. 6000'lerde insanoğlu Marmara Denizi'ni besin sağlama amacı ile kullanmaya başlamıştır. M.Ö. VIII. yüzyıl ile birlikte Marmara Denizi deniz ticaretinde ismini duyurmuştur. Arkaik, Klasik, Helenistik, Roma, Bizans ve Osmanlı dönemleri boyunca siyasi etkiler nedeni ile farklı deniz rotaları oluşmuştur. Her dönemde, değişen deniz rotaları kentlerin gelişmelerini etkilemiştir. Marmara Denizi deniz rotası üzerindeki kentler, gelişmeye sürekli devam etmiştir. Perinthos Antik Kenti ile Via Egnatia örneğinde olduğu gibi, limanlar bir yol ağı ile iç bölgelere ulaşıma sahip olmalıdırlar. Bu nedenle bölgede yol ağları üzerine de bir çalışma gerçekleştirilmiştir. Liman kentleri ile iç bölgeleri bağlayan yollar tespit edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Antik kaynaklardan bildiğimiz Prusa – Apameia bağlantısına ait arkeolojik bir veri ile karşılaşılmamıştır. Fakat yazıtlar ışığında Nicaea'dan Kios'a ulaşan bir yolun varlığı bilinmektedir. Bursa ili kıyıları kıyı yapısı, kayaç ve toprak yapısı ile antik kentlerin konumları karşılaştırılmıştır. Bu karşılaştırma sonucunda kıyı şeridi, kayaç ve toprak yapısı ile antik kentlerin konumları arasında bir bağlantı bulunamamıştır. Tarım toprakları haritası incelendiğinde ise, tüm önemli antik kentlerin (Myrleia, Kios, Daskyleion ad Mare) günümüzde zeytin dikim alanlarında kurulduğu ve verimli topraklara sahip olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Plakia Antik Kenti'nin konumu bazı antik kaynaklar tarafından verilse de, yeri hakkında soru işaretleri mevcuttur. Kent hakkında bilinenler, Rhyndakos Nehri'nin batısında, Pelasg kolonisi ve kıyı yerleşmesi olmasıdır. Yaptığımız araştırmalar esnasında, Kurşunlu/Karacabey'de sualtında oldukça tahrip edilmiş dalgakıran yapısı ile karşılaşılmıştır. Araştırma sahamızın başladığı alandan itibaren Rhyndakos Nehri'ne kadar tespit edilen tek liman kalıntısı burasıdır. Liman'ın üst kısmında bulunan manastır ve mimari parçalar bölgenin tarihini çok daha eskiye götürmektedir. Tespit ettiğimiz limanın, erken dönemlerde Plakia halkı tarafından kullanılan bir liman, Geç Antik Çağ'da ise Manastır Limanı olarak görev yaptığı düşünülmektedir. Burasının kesin olarak Plakia Antik Kenti'ne ait bir liman demek için en azından yazıtlar ile desteklenmesi gerekmektedir. Bu nedenle, bölgede başka bir liman kalıntısı bulunmamasından dolayı burasını Plakia Antik Kenti'nin limanı olarak tanımlamak uygun görülmüştür. Liman, iki dalgakıran yardımı oluşturulmuş, yapay deniz limanıdır. Dalgakıranlar iri düzensiz taşların yığılması ile meydana getirilmiştir. Daskyleion ad Mare ile Eşkel Limanı eşleştirilmesi XX. yüzyılın başlarında yapılmıştır. Bu nedenle, kentin limanını aramaya yönelik çalışmalar yapılmıştır. Eski fotoğraflardan kentin limanı tespit edilmiş, modern yapılaşmanın dalgakıran ve liman üzerindeki tahribatı belgelenmiştir. Kentin bir tek limanı olduğu ve bunun da koyun içinde inşa edildiği anlaşılmıştır. Dalgakıranı iri, düzensiz taşların yığması ile meydana getirilmiştir. Ketendere'nin gerek konumu, gerekse buluntuları nedeni ile bir kent olarak algılanmaması gerektiği anlaşılmıştır. Ketendere deresinin batı kısmında iri düzensiz taşların yığılması ile meydana getirilmiş bir dalgakıran yapısı tespit edilmiştir. Antik limanlar ve tatlı su kaynaklarının bağlantısı göz önüne alınarak burasının çok küçük deniz taşıtları için kullanıldığı ve Caesarea Germanica kentine ait olması gerektiği görüşü bildirilmiştir. Kapanca Limanı'nda yapılan çalışmalarda 2 adet dalgakıran yapısı tespit edilmiştir. Bu dalgakıranların, iri düzensiz taşların yığılması işe meydana getirildiği anlaşılmıştır. Yüzyıllardır yeri tartışma konusu olan Caesarea Germanica Antik Kenti ile Kapanca Limanı'nın ortak yönleri gösterilerek, burasının Caesarea Germanica olması gerektiği ifade edilmiştir. Trilye kıyılarında yapılan araştırmalar neticesinde ne yazık ki antik döneme tarihleyebileceğimiz hiç bir liman yapısı ile karşılaşılmamıştır. Trilye kıyı şeridindeki modern yapılaşma ve liman tahribatın en büyük sorumlularıdır. Trilye'de yapılmış olan çalışmalar incelendiğinde, burasının bir yerleşim yerinden çok bir kült olanı olarak algılanması gerektiği anlaşılmıştır. Mudanya sınırlarında yaptığımız araştırmalar daha önceden yeri tespit edilmiş olan akropol çevresinde yoğunlaştırılmıştır. Roma Dönemi'nden itibaren Bursa için çok önemli bir liman şehri olan Mudanya'da kıyı şeridinde antik döneme tarihlenebilecek herhangi bir liman kalıntısı tespit edilememiştir. Eşkel, Trilye gibi Mudanya kıyı şeridinin de yoğun olarak doldurulduğu ve yapılaşmaya gidildiği anlaşılmıştır. 1860'lı yıllarda kıyı şeridinde sözü edilen dalgakıran yapılarının bu yapılaşma nedeni yok olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Mudanya – Gemlik arasındaki araştırmalar neticesinde Sırakayalar Mevkii'nde liman yapısı tespit edilmiştir. Dalgakıranlar iri düzensiz taşların dizilmesi ile meydana gelmiştir. Limanın fonksiyonunu anlamak için çevrede yaptığımız araştırmalarda limanın yamaçlarındaki tepe üzerinde yol yapımı ve taş ocağı nedeni ile yoğun tahribatın olduğu gözlenmiştir. Hangi kente ait olduğunu tespit etmek için yaptığımız araştırmalarda, ismi bilinen fakat yeri hakkında soru işaretleri olan Bryllion Antik Kenti ile ortak noktaları tespit edilmiştir. Bu limanın yaklaşık olarak üç kilometre iç kısmında bulunan Gündoğdu'da bulunan antik kent ile bağlantısının olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Bazı bilimadamlarının Paladari olarak isimlendirdiği kentin erken dönemleri hakkında hiçbir bilgi yoktur. Antik yazarlardan bölgede olması muhtemel kentler araştırılmış ve eşlenen tek yerleşim ile filolojik eşleştirilme yapılmaya çalışılmıştır. Tüm veriler göz önünde tutulduğunda Gündoğdu'daki antik kentin Bryllion, limanın arkasındaki tepe üzerinde de Bryllion'un epineonu olan Tereia'nın bulunması gerektiği düşünülmüştür. Bu nedenle kayıp kent Bryllion ile Gündoğdu yakınındaki Çiftekayalar'ın aynı yer olduğu ifade edilmiştir. Özellikle M.S. X. yüzyıldan sonra bölge için önemli bir gemi üretim merkezi olarak bilinen Gemlik'te yapılan araştırmalar neticesinde antik döneme tarihlenebilecek herhangi bir liman veya tersane yapısı ile karşılaşılmamıştır. Kıyı şeridinin tamamen dolduğu ve yeniden yapılaşmanın olduğu anlaşılmıştır. İznik Gölü'nde yapılan araştırmalar esnasında dört farklı noktada iskele kazıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu kazıkların yerleri ile, bölgede yerleri tahmin edilen antik kentler karşılaştırıldığında birebir örtüşme söz konusudur. Ahşapların tatlı sularda binyıllar boyunca bozulmadan kalabildiği bilinmektedir. Bodrum, Myndos, Antalya, Plakia, Eşkel, Gemlik örneklerinden de bildiğimiz gibi limanların olduğu yerler binyıllar boyunca aynı işlevde yaşamlarını sürdürmüşlerdir. Bu durum göllerde de söz konusu olmalıdır. İznik kenti çevresinde yaptığımız araştırmalarda dalgakıran benzeri bir yapı ile karşılaşılmamıştır. Kentin göl kısmında yoğun dolgu bulunmaktadır. Göl Kapı önünde tespit edilen kazıklar muhtemelen antik kentin iskelesini işaret ediyor olmalıdır. Yüzyıllar boyunca aynı mevki, eskiyen ahşapların yenilenmesi ile kullanılmış olmalıdır. Uluabat Gölü'nde yaptığımız çalışmaların sonuçları İznik Gölü'nde yaptığımız çalışmaların sonuçları ile benzerlik göstermektedir. Her iki gölde de dalgakıran veya mendirek yapısına rastlanmamıştır. Gölyazı (Apollonia ad Rhydakos)'ta yaptığımız çalışmalar neticesinde insitu şeklinde bulunan bağlama taşı limanın tam yerini bize göstermektedir. Bağlama taşı gölden yaklaşık 16 metre içeride bulunmaktadır. Aradan geçen yol ile, olması muhtemel kalıntılar tahrip edilmiştir. Antik kaynaklardan Miletopolitis Gölü kıyısında kurulduğunu bildiğimiz Miletopolis kenti günümüzde tamamen karasal bir alandadır. En yakın göl Uluabat Gölü olup, arasındaki mesafe kuş uçuşu 20 kilometredir. Strabon'un bahsettiği gölü bulmak için çevre topografyası ve coğrafyası üzerine yapılan araştırmalar ile kuruyan gölün sınırları tespit edilmiştir. Müze Müdürlüğü'nün yaptırdığı kazılar neticesinde ortaya çıkan yapılar ve topografya ışığında limanın nerede olması gerektiği açıklanmıştır. Rhyndakos Nehri'nin Uluabat Gölü ve Marmara Denizi arasında kalan kısımdaki çalışmalarda herhangi bir liman yapısı bulunamamıştır. Buradaki çalışmalarda orta boyda balıkçı teknelerinin bile günümüzde bu nehirde yolculuk ettiği ve kıyıda herhangi bir liman yapısına gereksinim duymadan demirleyebildiği anlaşılmıştır. Bu alandaki çalışmalara, herhangi bir buluntu olmaması nedeni ile ayrı bir başlık açılmamıştır. Kıyı şeridindeki ve göllerdeki çalışmalar göstermiştir ki, Bursa il sınırlarında tespit edilen tüm deniz limanlarında dalgakıranlar iri, düzensiz taşlar yardımı inşa edilmiştir. Tatlı sularda ise, herhangi bir dalgakıran yapısı ile karşılaşılmamaktadır. Tatlı sularda liman için ekstra yapılaşma gerekmemektedir. 135 kilometrelik kıyı şeridinde üç adet dalgakıran yapısı tespit edilmiştir. Eşkel, Trilye, Mudanya, ve Gemlik gibi halen yaşamın sürdüğü yerleşim yerlerinde limanların tahrip ve yok edildiği anlaşılmıştır. Kıyı şeridinin düz olması nedeni ile doğal liman hiç yoktur. Tespit edilen limanların hepsi yapay deniz limanıdır. M.Ö. VII. yüzyıldan itibaren deniz ticaretinde aktif olan Marmara Denizi kıyılarındaki limanları tarihlemek için yeterli veri mevcut değildir. Dalgakıranların yapım şeklinden tarihleme yapılamamaktadır. Fakat buluntular ışığında; Plakia Antik Kenti M.Ö. IV. yüzyıl; Daskyleion ad Mare M.Ö. IV. yüzyıl; Caesarea Germanica M.S. I. yüzyıl; Apameia/Myrleia M.Ö. IV. yüzyıl; Bryllion ve Kios M.Ö. V. yüzyıl'a tarihlendirilmektedirler. Plakia – Daskyleion ad Mare arasındaki mesafe 33 kilometre; Daskyleion ad Mare – Caesarea Germanica arası 5 km; Caesarea Germanica – Apamia/Myrleia arası 14 km; Apameia/Myrleia – Bryllion arası 9 km ve Bryllion – arası 17 kilometredir. Aralarındaki mesafeler bakımından bir ortaklık gözükmemektedir. Bu nedenle, bölgede liman kentleri kurulurken aralarındaki mesafeden çok coğrafya şartlarına dikkat edilmiştir. ; From prehistoric times to modern times, Anatolia has been home to many civilizations. It has hosted many cultures and many different languages have been spoken on this very piece of land. Since the 19th century, these lands attracted the attention of western archaeologists. Then, in the middle of the 20th century, it started to attract the attention of underwater archaeologists. Underwater research is particularly concentrated on the south and west coasts of Anatolia. While underwater research has been carried out around Marmara Island, at the lake of Küçükçekmece at the Marmara Sea, the only underwater research carried out in 2008 happened at Kyzikos (Erdek) at the south coasts of Marmara Sea. Around 7,100 years ago, after the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea connected, the importance of the Marmara Sea increased. After this period, it had officiated as a bridge between the civilization of the Northern Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. With the Neolithic Period, signs of life started to be detected around Marmara Sea and then with the colonization movements, the area hosted many cities. Mediterranean civilizations entering the Marmara Sea through the Dardanelles started to establish colonial cities at the coasts of Marmara. The south coasts of the Marmara Sea waited to attract the attention of researchers for long years. This can be seen clearly when, compared with the other parts of the Anatolian lands, the Marmara coasts were neglected. For this reason, the southern Marmara region's harbors were chosen as the area of this research. Four different provinces (Çanakkale, Balıkesir, Bursa, Yalova) had borders at the coasts of the Marmara Sea. The Turkish Ministry is providing a working permission for each province, at each period. As it was impossible to investigate the coastline of a province at a period, the research was limited to ancient harbors with the border of Bursa Province. Apart from the 135m areas at the coastline of Marmara Sea, the coasts of İznik and Uluabat lakes were also investigated. Information about the area was gathered from ancient resources, late antique travelers and modern research. The writing of the ancient authors, who gave information about the harbors of the region and harbor cities (including Strabo, Herodotus, Pseudo-Skylaks, Apollonius Rhodius, Xenophon, Pliny the Elder, Dio Chrysostom, Claudius Ptolemy, Stephanos Byzantinos, Pomponius Mela and Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus) were examined. Moreover, writing of the travelers such as Seyyid Muradi, İbn Battuta, Polish Simeon, Evliya Çelebi, Jean Thevenot, Richard Pockocke and Charles Texier were collected and considered as an adviser during the research. In all these resources, particular emphasis was laid on coastal cities and harbor structures. Since the period when maritime trade began, harbors become the most important points in the segmentation of the cities. Because they are the places where trade originated in the city, they were directly integrated into daily life. Harbors are natural or artificial places where the ships find shelter, load and unload goods, and board and drop off passengers. The first and last thing that a merchant coming to the city saw was the harbor. However, despite being in such an important position, they have not received enough attention from researchers over the years. The number of studies on the harbors of Anatolian coasts demonstrates that thus far. At the Bursa Province coastline, no research was held until today. The earliest sea-faring vessel made by humans dates back to 6000 BC, and the earliest harbor structure dates back to 3000 BC. According to the growing needs of people, water vessels also grew in size, and people needed places to protect these vessels. As a result of the size of the vessels becoming too big to be pulled to the coast easily, as well as the invention of hydrophilic cement allowing constructions underwater, harbors structures were constructed. Harbors were constructed in different ways depending on where they were found in the city. It is possible to divide harbors in two groups, according to the places where harbors were constructed and their respective functions. According to location, harbors are divided into sea harbors and freshwater harbors. Because of the diversity of coastline, sea harbors can be further categorized into natural and artificial harbors. Because lake and river coastlines are flat, all the freshwaters harbors are artificial. The main factor that determines whether the harbor is artificial or natural is the construction form of harbor's basin. Because natural harbors were constructed at bays, the natural basin of the bay would be used to form the harbor. Artificial harbors are constructed with the support of water basins, breakwaters and moles. Additionally, ancient harbors are divided even further, according to their functions: military harbors, trade harbors and private harbors. Harbor research around the world started in the 20th century AD. ; Bursa Metropolitan Municipality