Most of the post-war published papers on soc conflict have reflected a powerful behavioral bias, implying a high degree of autonomy for the conflicting parties. When the examination of those behavioral limitations which go beyond those imposed by the power & behavior of the adversary has been attempted, the focus has tended to fall upon the S-cul environment. Little attention has been paid to the ways in which the physical environment impinges upon the conflict process. Men & soc groups may accept such environmental limitations, try to adapt to them, or seek to modify them, but some psychic or behavioral adjustment is always necessary. The papers in this volume all reflect that need to adjust to physical environment. They also suggest that the nat'l, territorially-based state has been made obsolete by the processes of technological & industrial adjustment , & that pol'al adjustment to the new man-milieu combination is essential. AA.
A model of org as a system is outlined as the basis for a theory of org & conflict. Elements in the description of an org are: the static structure of parts; description of the org as a machine, or energy transformer; description in terms of a growth system or dynamic open system; control processes involving information inputs & outputs & knowledge structures; the value dimensions of the org image; &the establishment & development of the image. 3 conflict situations are then distinguished &analyzed: econ conflict, interaction conflict, & internal conflict. The most important avenue of conflict resolution is simple avoidance. If this is impossible, resolution depends on the reduction in the intensity of the conflict &the development of over-riding org's which include both parties. I. Taviss.
Whenever shared interests among the parties to a dispute make any reasonable sort of settlement mutually advantageous over stalemate or violence, yet emotional commitments render the conflict seemingly 'hopeless,' a suitably-chosen random settlement mechanism may be invoked. The presence of a neutral 3rd party, whose interests are also served by any peaceable settlement, but who wishes to avoid the onus of 'compulsory arbitration,' can facilitate operation of such a mechanism. The threat of invoking a random settlement need not preclude normal bargaining. Indeed, the probability distribution governing random settlement processes can be manipulated to encourage bargaining convergence, by rewarding concessions & penalizing unilateral intransigence. AA.
A study of the determinants of attitude changes produced by communications on soc issues, assuming that changes in alt's & actions may occur at diff levels corresponding to diff's in the process whereby the individual accepts influence. 3 diff processes of influence are distinguished: (1) compliance, in which influence is accepted because of the hope of achieving a favorable reaction from another person or group, (2) identification, in which influence is accepted because of the desire to establish or maintain a satisfying self-defining relationship to another person or group, & (3) internalization, in which influence is accepted because the content of the induced behavior is intrinsically rewarding. The determinants of these 3 processes can be differentiated in terms of the nature of the anticipated effect, the source of the influencing agent's power, & the manner in which the induced response has become prepotent. Each of 4 communications was presented to a diff exp'al group of Negro freshmen in a border state Coll, while a control group was not exposed to any communication at all. The communications, presented prior to the Supreme Court desegregation decision, were concerned with segregation in Sch's & were differentiated as follows: in the first, the communicator was presented as possessing high means-control; in the second, he had high attractiveness; in the third, he had high credibility; & in the fourth, he had low power, ie, was low in means-control, attractiveness, & credibility. After exposure to the communication, the S's responded to att questionnaires designed to measure the extent of their agreement with the communicator. The following hyp's were tested: (a) att's adopted from a communicator whose power is based on means-control will tend to be expressed only under conditions of surveillance by the communicator; the mediating process here is compliance, (b) att's from a communicator whose power is based on attractiveness will tend to be expressed only under conditions of salience of the S's relationship to the communicator; the mediating process is identification, & (c) att's from a communicator whose power is based on credibility will tend to be expressed under conditions of relevance of the issue, regardless of surveillance or salience; the mediating process is internalization. All 3 hyp's were confirmed by the data. I. Taviss.
A theoretical analysis of the causes of fam conflict & of means of preventing & resolving conflicts is presented. Causes include: (1) 'compulsion'--eg, the inability of hostile fam members to withdraw from the field, (2) 'intimacy' of contact between fam members, (3) the small size of the group which facilitates the polarization of factions, & (4) the rapidity of developmental alterations in whatever equilibria may be established. 'Normative mechanisms' for preventing fam conflict include: (1) avoiding probable sources of conflict by discouraging incompatible marriages & minimizing contact between 'dangerous' fam members, (2) allocating rights & duties to particular roles. according to prescribed cultural patterns which narrow the area open for debate, & (3) culturally prescribed rules for fair treatment of fam members, esp those calling for equal treatment of children when they arrive at the same age. 'Instrumental mechanisms' for resolving fam conflicts include: (1) providing increased facilities for fam living (such as a 2nd car), (2) enacting priority systems for the use of limited facilities (eg, establishing a budget or TV schedule), (3) enlarging areas of autonomous decision-making within the fam as by giving the marriage partners financial allowances to spend as they see fit, & (4) providing opportunities for tension-reduction as by temporary vacations from the fam. Processes of resolving fam conflict include: (1) discussion leading to consensus, compromise, or concession, (2) mediation by a 3rd party, & (3) accommodation. In the event of failure to achieve any of these, more drastic withdrawal from the field may be the only remaining means of ending open conflict. AA.
There is no framework for conflict analysis currently in existence: generalization across disciplinary lines has been slow to develop, propositions have not been systematically linked, res has not always been guided by hyp's of acceptable power & significance, & no body of case materials based on comparative types, unifying concepts & general hyp's has been developed. In an attempt to arrive at more precise conceptualization, 50 propositions culled from the literature are presented & analyzed. The following 8 properties of conflict systems are outlined as the basis for hyp's re the sources, conditions, functions, context, & type of conflict: (1) conflict requires at least 2 parties or 2 analytically distinct units, (2) conflict arises from `positions scarcity' &'resource scarcity,' (3) conflictful behaviors are those designed to destroy, injure, thwart, or otherwise control another party or otner parties, & a conflict relationship is one in which the parties can gain only at each other's expense, (4) conflict requires interaction among parties in which actions & counteractions are mutually opposed, (5) conflict relations always involve attempts to gain control of scarce resources & positions or to influence behavior in certain directions; hence a conflict relationship always involves the attempt to acquire or exercise power or the actual acquisition or exercise of power, (6) conflict relations constitute a fundamental soc-interaction process having important consequences, (7) a conflict process or relation represents a temporary tendency toward disjunction in the interaction flow between parties, & (8) conflict relations do not represent a breakdown in regulated conduct but rather a shift in the governing norms & expectations. I. Taviss.
As distinct from many other soc processes which are finite contain within themselves instit'ly prescribed termination points, soc conflicts (C's) follow a law of soc inertia, ie, they continue to operate unless specific provisions for stopping their course be made by the participants. The termination of C hence presents peculiar problems not encountered in finite processes. To end a C the parties must agree upon rules & norms allowing them to assess their respective power position. The more restricted the object of contention & the more visible for both parties the clues to victory, the higher the chance that the C be limited in time & extension. But no matter how the activities of the potential winner may facilitate an early termination, the final decision to end the C remains with the potential loser. Hence the importance of symbols of defeat. The availability of such symbols facilitates resolution of C's. The structure of the opposing camps furnishes clues as to symbols of defeat. In centralized nations the fall of the capital may symbolize defeat, in a decentralized , Ru nation the capture of a charismatic war leader or the exhaustion of agri'al resources may serve as a symbol of defeat. Acceptance of defeat, as well as willingness to compromise, further depend on the ability of leaders to make the led within their camp accept their definition of the situation. To make defeat palatable may require as much effort as to make war desirable. Here symbols are again of central importance. Clear symbolizations of outcomes & relative strength when readily available & highly instit'ed help to shorten conflicts & limit their intensity. An understanding of the symbols which move men to accept compromise or even defeat might be as valuable as the attempt to uncover symbols which incite to war. AA.
An analysis of the following 5 propositions & their interrelationships, employing data from industrial relations: (1) the soc structure of complex industrial societies is continuously changing, (2) conflict between groups is a fundamental soc process, (3) conflict between groups becomes institutionalized, (4) resolutions of group conflict determine the direction of soc change, & (5) soc welfare depends upon the outcome of group conflict. I. Taviss.
Technical aid to the under-developed countries may have important side-effects on the internal soc structure of the receiving community, contrary to the desired goals of the projecters. It may generate tensions & soc conflict between existing & emerging factions of the community. This is shown re some case studies from the Indo-Norwegian Fishing Project in Kerala. Technical assistance is defined as a process by which the donor tries to transfer goods & services to a receiver with a diff culture, & where some of the items are already accepted as valuables, but are scarce goods. The goods & services introduced from the outside are considered as stimuli for action & split into 2 components (1) capital: mechanized boats, fishing nets, subsidies & loans & (2) value-set: the soc'ization of habits, skills & att's necessary for the operation of the new equipment. It is shown that the unequal reception of the new technology by the diff parts of the community in some cases have increased rather than reduced the inequality of living standards which existed prior to the introduction of the aid program & have accelerated econ growth in that part of the pop which already for some time had been in a process of their own econ development. The possibilities of changing the opinions and values of that group of the community which does not react adequately to the new stimuli are discussed. Modified AA.
A discussion of intergroup conflict based on the assumption that 'there is no longer a rational basis for war or violent struggle between groups or nations because of conflicts of interest or of ideology.' Background factors common to group conflict must take into account the differential motivational & cognitive processes of: the leaders, the factions, & the masses. 6 sources of irrationality common in many people are delineated & analyzed: (1) latent hostility, (2) situational frustration & displaced aggression, (3) defensive group identification, (4) institutional conformity, (5) apathy or withdrawal, & (6) cognitive nearsightedness of shortsighted self-interest. While these factors describe the general conditions which make war possible, they do not account for the dynamics of any specific conflict. 2 other elements must be considered in the process: the role of leaders & the role of factions or leadership groups. 4 types of conflict outcome can be distinguished: (a) stalemate of aggressive conflict in which there is no victory for either side but only a cessation due to exhaustion, (b) conquest & dominance as the result of successful aggressive struggle, (c) compromise, & (d) genuine solution of group conflict. One major condition facilitating (d) is: 'the consistent participation of the many members in group processes & group decisions in their functional & pol'al groups.' This type of participation is distinguished from token & minimal participation, routine compliant participation, & sporadic emotional participation. The determinants of consistent reactive participation by group members are traced to specific: personality variables, value systems, belief systems, & soc structure variables. Consistent reactive participation aids in the solution of group conflict because: the power drives of leaders are checked; leaders cannot take their people so readily into violent group struggle through the pressure of some special factions; the instrumentality for constructive solutions cannot rise above the level of the instrumental functioning of the groups themselves; the nature of the basic objectives of the group are dependent upon the consistent reactive participation of the many; & 'the involvement of the many in reaching a solution of group diff's makes possible a broader basis for finding common values & common paths.' I. Taviss.
Diff's in racial att's between southern whites & Negroes are extreme & intensely felt. As southern Negroes become more militant & pol'ly powerful, & as the nat'l gov intervenes more vigorously in their behalf, the consensus within the 2 races & conflict between them produce problems for which the normal processes of compromise & accommodation are largely inoperative. The majority of neither race correctly perceives the att's of the other. Negro opposition to segregation is unlikely to change, & pressure from the rest of the nation is unlikely to diminish. The att's of white southerners are gradually being altered. In the `peripheral' South, the greater awareness by whites of Negro discontent, the existence of a signif minority of white moderates, & the growing number of Negro voters make the accommodation of racial conflict pol'ly possible. In the deep South, white awareness of Negro opinion & the number of white moderates & Negro voters are too small at present to permit white politicians to compromise. But forces within the South & from outside seem to be working in that direction. AA.
The errant child does not fare well at the hands of a society which professes a special status for him & a special treatment process. Confusion exists in the public mind & the public policy about the rights & responsibilities of children. We are in need of a renewed effort to clarify our concepts, strengthen our commitment to children, & fortify our helping services, including Sch's, soc agencies, police work with juveniles, detention, courts & probation, & instit care. AA.
A presentation of a labor-management conflict which 'provides an opportunity to observe the application of soc system analysis within a soc process as it progresses through the following stages: (1) beginning with a soc conflict & the disruption of an established bargaining pattern, (2) extending through the period when the consultant & industrial relations director were analyzing the problem & the possible actions to be taken, (3) embracing the action taken by the general manager & the immediate outcomes, & (4) ending with the resolution of the conflict as consummated by the signing of a new labor contract.' Alternative action patterns were assessed in terms of possible repercussions on the values of each participant, pattern of control, & soc costs incurred. It is suggested that other concepts could be fruitfully introduced, eg, the beliefs & sentiments of the actors, the porms of groups, sanctions, systemic linkage, & the boundaries of the systems. I. Taviss.
An outline of the type of res necessary to explore the manner in which 'some limited objects or issues in dispute come to grow in the perception & evaluation of national publics & decision-makers until their att's & policies harden to the point where the leaders of one or both parties to the dispute believe that they have lost their freedom of decision.' Such res would explore whether there exists an identifiable threshold in international conflict situations, the process by which such a point if approached & passed, & the possible policies by which the crossing of such a threshold could be prevented. 4 approaches to be used are: (1) an application of communication theory to the way in which att's & images are built up in the minds of pol'al decision-makers, (2) the role of the media of mass communication in this process, (3) a survey of cases of recent international conflict situations that threaten to become unmanageable &those that have been sufficiently contained to prevent an outbreak of war, & (4) a legal evaluation of the methods of regulation & control which have been found to be effective in past cases. 2 basic questions are suggested: What are the characteristics of the decision to make war? & What are the characteristics of the flow of information to pol'al decision-makers that lead to it? These areas are further broken down into more specific questions & possible methods to seek answers to them & possible cases to be studied are presented. I. Taviss.
